Analysis of adoption of conservation agriculture practices in southern Africa: mixed-methods approach

In southern Africa, conservation agriculture (CA) has been promoted to address low agricultural productivity, food insecurity, and land degradation. However, despite significant experimental evidence on the agronomic and economic benefits of CA and large scale investments by the donor community and national governments, adoption rates among smallholders remain below expectation. The main objective of this research project was thus to investigate why previous efforts and investments to scale CA technologies and practices in southern Africa have not led to widespread adoption. The paper applies a multivariate probit model and other methods to survey data from 4,373 households and 278 focus groups to identify the drivers and barriers of CA adoption in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The results show that declining soil fertility is a major constraint to maize production in Zambia and Malawi, and drought/heat is more pronounced in Zimbabwe. We also find gaps between (a) awareness and adoption, (b) training and adoption, and (c) demonstration and adoption rates of CA practices in all three countries. The gaps are much bigger between awareness and adoption and much smaller between hosting demonstration and adoption, suggesting that much of the awareness of CA practices has not translated to greater adoption. Training and demonstrations are better conduits to enhance adoption than mere awareness creation. Therefore, demonstrating the applications and benefits of CA practices is critical for promoting CA practices in all countries. Besides, greater adoption of CA practices requires enhancing farmers’ access to inputs, addressing drudgery associated with CA implementation, enhancing farmers’ technical know-how, and enacting and enforcing community bylaws regarding livestock grazing and wildfires. The paper concludes by discussing the implications for policy and investments in CA promotion

ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES AND ITS EFFECT ON MAIZE PRODUCTIVITY: A CASE OF THE LEGUME BEST BETS PROJECT IN MKANAKHOTI EXTENSION PLANNING AREA OF KASUNGU DISTRICT IN CENTRAL MALAWI

The main objective of this study was to identify and analyse determinants that influence adoption and productivity effects of Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) technologies in maize-based farming systems in Central Malawi. Data used in the analysis were collected from 200 randomly selected households from Mkanakhoti Extension Planning Area in Kasungu District. A multivariate probit model was used to analyse farmers multiple and joint adoption decisions while the Poisson regression model was used to analyse factors influencing the extent of adoption of ISFM technologies. An endogenous switching regression model was used to estimate the effect of adoption of ISFM technologies on maize productivity whilst accounting for unobservable selection bias. The results show that adoption of some components of ISFM technology package are substitutable while others are complimentary in nature. Significant factors for both adoption and sustainability by smallholders include access to legume seed, access to extension, secure land tenure, group membership and landholding size. For instance, access to extension was positive and significantly correlated with adoption of inorganic fertilizer and maize-legume intercropping while secure land tenure positively and significantly influenced adoption of legume-maize rotation system. Access to market, access to legume seed, and frequency of extension contacts, and household assets, all had positive and significant effect on both adoption and extent of adoption of ISFM technologies. Further, results also indicate that adoption of ISFM technologies had a positive and significant effect on maize yields with 10.52% increase from average among the ISFM adopters while non adopters would have increased their maize yield by16.2% had they adopted the ISFM technologies. The policy implications of the study findings are as follows: (i) Increasing farmers’ access to improved legume seed at affordable prices is critical for both adoption and upscaling of ISFM technologies. (ii) ISFM technology package in maize-based cropping systems that include use of inorganic fertilizer should be promoted together with complementary interventions such as maize-legume intercropping and improved seed. (iii) The need for policies to foster collective action where extension messages that emphasize the complementarities in adoption of ISFM technologies should emphasized. (iv) Promoting access to output markets for grain legumes such as pigeon peas is crucial to incentivise adoption of legume integration in maize-based farming system, and (v) Intensification of ISFM technologies should focus on those farmers with secure land tenure and boost female farmers access to productive resources

Analysis of the Value Chains for Root and Tuber Crops in Malawi: The Case of Cassava

Key Findings and Recommendations • Cassava productivity has increased over the past decade partly due to introduction of improved high yielding and pest and disease resistant varieties but yields still fall short of the potential. • Some of the factors constraining productivity growth include: over-recycling of seed among farmers and poor agronomic practices due to limited extension services. • Demand for cassava and associated products is increasing due to increasing urbanization where cassava offers one of the sources of cheap carbohydrates. The crop’s drought tolerant nature also offers one of the adaptation strategies to the impacts of climate change that Malawi is facing. • Cassava has a wide range of products that can be processed, including High Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF), whose potential for wheat import substitution in the confectionary and brewery industries has not been fully exploited. Developing the cassava processing industry can contribute to reduction in Malawi’s high importation bill. • To improve Malawi’s cassava value chain, the following recommendations are made: significant investments in seed systems, greenhouses, irrigation, post-harvest, value addition and agro-processing technologies in response to identified market and industry needs; investments in research and extension on improved varieties, good agronomic practices, and pest and diseases prevention and control; and investments to link farmers, farmer organizations and processors through contract farming arrangements

Analysis of the Value Chains for Root and Tuber Crops in Malawi: The Case of Sweet Potatoes

• Sweet potato yields have increased over the past decade partly due to introduction of improved high yielding varieties but yields still fall short of the potential. • Some of the factors constraining productivity growth include over-recycling of seed among farmers and poor agronomic practices due to limited extension services. • The release of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) varieties have contributed to decline in Vitamin A deficiency in Malawi, contributing to improved nutrition status. • Demand for sweet potato and associated products is increasing partly due to increased urbanization and vulnerability of maize to climate change impacts. • To improve Malawi’s sweet potato value chain, the following recommendations are made: significant investments in seed systems, irrigation, post-harvest, value addition and agro-processing technologies in response to identified market and industry needs; investments in research and extension on improved varieties, good agronomic practices, and pest and diseases prevention and control; and investments to link farmers, farmer organizations and processors through contract farming arrangements and scaling up of Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) varieties to maintain sufficient Vitamin A intake

Analysis of the Value Chains for Root and Tuber Crops in Malawi: The Case of Sweet Potato

KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS • Sweet potato yields have increased over the past decade partly due to introduction of improved high yielding varieties but yields still fall short of the potential. • Some of the factors constraining productivity growth include over-recycling of seed among farmers and poor agronomic practices due to limited extension services. • The release of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) varieties have contributed to decline in Vitamin A deficiency in Malawi, contributing to improved nutrition status. • Demand for sweet potato and associated products is increasing partly due to increased urbanization and vulnerability of maize to climate change impacts. • To improve Malawi’s sweet potato value chain, the following recommendations are made: significant investments in seed systems, irrigation, post-harvest, value addition and agro-processing technologies in response to identified market and industry needs; investments in research and extension on improved varieties, good agronomic practices, and pest and diseases prevention and control; and investments to link farmers, farmer organizations and processors through contract farming arrangements and scaling up of Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) varieties to maintain sufficient Vitamin A intake

Analysis of the Value Chains for Root and Tuber Crops in Malawi: The Case of Cassava

KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -Cassava productivity has increased over the past decade partly due to introduction of improved high yielding and pest and disease resistant varieties but yields still fall short of the potential. -Some of the factors constraining productivity growth include: over-recycling of seed among farmers and poor agronomic practices due to limited extension services. -Demand for cassava and associated products is increasing due to increasing urbanization where cassava offers one of the sources of cheap carbohydrates. The crop’s drought tolerant nature also offers one of the adaptation strategies to the impacts of climate change that Malawi is facing. -Cassava has a wide range of products that can be processed, including High Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF), whose potential for wheat import substitution in the confectionary and brewery industries has not been fully exploited. Developing the cassava processing industry can contribute to reduction in Malawi’s high importation bill. -To improve Malawi’s cassava value chain, the following recommendations are made: significant investments in seed systems, greenhouses, irrigation, post-harvest, value addition and agro-processing technologies in response to identified market and industry needs; investments in research and extension on improved varieties, good agronomic practices, and pest and diseases prevention and control; and investments to link farmers, farmer organizations and processors through contract farming arrangements

Opportunities to Enhance the Competitiveness of Malawi’s Tea Industry: Evidence from an Analysis of the Tea Value Chain,

KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The study found that the market for black tea is oversupplied at a global level, putting downward pressure on real tea prices in Malawi; There is no clear way for the tea industry in Malawi to improve its competitiveness. Development of the smallholder grower sector is limited by scarcity of land in the production hub (Thyolo and Mulanje). Increasing productivity of the smallholder sector is one way of expanding the tea industry. Large estates are mainly constrained by large tracts of their estates having old tea plantations that are low yielding. Uprooting of these plantations for new higher yielding plants is limited by competition from Macadamia as a more profitable substitute and heavy investment requirements. Smallholder growers in Malawi make a significantly lower margin than estates; To enable expansion and improvement in competitiveness, public investment should focus on unlocking ‘bottlenecks’ caused by issues around seedling supply, costs of and access to finance, a lack of extension services, and land tenure security for both smallholders and large estates; Opportunities for the integration of smallholders into the tea industry value chain through ownership and participation in tea processing should be identified and viable options should be pursued; To encourage increased private investment, an assessment of production suitability at country-level for all tea varieties is required to identify new areas for expansion and investment

Opportunities to Enhance the Competitiveness of Malawi’s Tea Industry - Policy Brief

KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS -The study found that the market for black tea is oversupplied at a global level, putting downward pressure on real tea prices in Malawi; -There is no clear way for the tea industry in Malawi to improve its competitiveness. Development of the smallholder grower sector is limited by scarcity of land in the production hub (Thyolo and Mulanje). Increasing productivity of the smallholder sector is one way of expanding the tea industry. Large estates are mainly constrained by large tracts of their estates having old tea plantations that are low yielding. Uprooting of these plantations for new higher yielding plants is limited by competition from Macadamia as a more profitable substitute and heavy investment requirements. -Smallholder growers in Malawi make a significantly lower margin than estates; To enable expansion and improvement in competitiveness, public investment should focus on unlocking ‘bottlenecks’ caused by issues around seedling supply, costs of and access to finance, a lack of extension services, and land tenure security for both smallholders and large estates; -Opportunities for the integration of smallholders into the tea industry value chain through ownership and participation in tea processing should be identified and viable options should be pursued; -To encourage increased private investment, an assessment of production suitability at country-level for all tea varieties is required to identify new areas for expansion and investment

Making Fertilizer Use More Effective and Profitable: The Role of Complementary Interventions

KEY MESSAGES -Fertilizer use can be made more profitable with the inclusion of complementary interventions such as integrated soil fertility management practices that include integrating legumes in farming systems, crop rotation, application of organic manure in combination with inorganic fertilizers, and application of lime on acidic soils, among others. -By raising the efficiency of fertilizer use, these complementary interventions can expand the effective demand for fertilizers in a sustainable manner without dependence on subsidy programs. -Extension programs featuring good agronomic practices such as timely planting, correct and timely fertilizer application, timely weeding and proper plant spacing will also raise the efficiency of fertilizer use. -Effective implementation of these interventions will require public investments in agricultural research and responsive extension systems. -While typically considered outside the range of fertilizer promotion policies, public investment in road, rail-way and rural infrastructure and competitive behavior of the Malawi transport sector is another powerful way to boost fertilizer access by farmers

Making Fertilizer Use More Effective and Profitable: The Role of Complementary Interventions

Key Messages • Fertilizer use can be made more profitable with the inclusion of complementary interventions such as integrated soil fertility management practices that include integrating legumes in farming systems, crop rotation, application of organic manure in combination with inorganic fertilizers, and application of lime on acidic soils, among others. • By raising the efficiency of fertilizer use, these complementary interventions can expand the effective demand for fertilizers in a sustainable manner without dependence on subsidy programs. • Extension programs featuring good agronomic practices such as timely planting, correct and timely fertilizer application, timely weeding and proper plant spacing will also raise the efficiency of fertilizer use. • Effective implementation of these interventions will require public investments in agricultural research and responsive extension systems. • While typically considered outside the range of fertilizer promotion policies, public investment in road, rail-way and rural infrastructure and competitive behavior of the Malawi transport sector is another powerful way to boost fertilizer access by farmers