A Qualitative Method for Investigating Design

This chapter describes our qualitative study of designers and design practice. It situates the study in the broader field of empirical studies of intellectual property, and it describes in detail the methodology and benefits of a qualitative interview study of designers and design practice to shed light on some of the persistent puzzles in design law. The chapter focuses on four lines of inquiry: defining “design” and “design practice” from within the profession; exploring the various inputs to design practice and the process of “problem solving” designers pursue; understanding what “integrated” form and function mean to designers; and explaining the features of “successful” or “excellent” design as a professional standard

Investigating Design

Design is ascendant. Steve Jobs’s legendary obsession with design was widely regarded as Apple’s comparative advantage, and that lesson has not been lost on its competitors. Design thinking is a growth industry, in business and at universities, and design professionals continue to take on increasingly significant roles within firms. The increasing economic significance of design has been reflected in an explosion of design patent applications and increasing amount of design litigation.Despite design’s growing economic and legal importance, relatively little is known by legal scholars and policymakers about designers or the design process. This paper addresses that gap and is drawn from original data collected over several years interviewing and observing designers where they work. Our interviews provide a rich background on the design field(s), the nature and value of design, and designers’ goals and values.Studying designers and the practice of design is not only economically and culturally relevant, but significant as a matter of legal policy because design has been an enduring puzzle in intellectual property law. Design is not archetypal subject matter for any of the IP systems. Indeed, Congress created the design patent system in 1842 precisely because it didn’t believe design fit any of the then-existing regimes. But design patent, like copyright and trademark (which have since expanded to accommodate at least some design) has always struggled with design’s hybrid nature. More specifically, each of those systems has attempted to separate out the functional aspects of design in order to channel protection for those features to utility patent law. Our data suggest that this challenge might be insurmountable. While there are good reasons for IP doctrines to attempt to channel protection, separation of functional features runs counter to modern designers’ interdisciplinarity and explicit goals of coherence and integration

Smart Energy Research Lab: Energy use in GB domestic buildings 2021

Variation in annual, seasonal, and diurnal gas and electricity use with weather, building and occupant characteristics

The SERL Observatory Dataset: Longitudinal Smart Meter Electricity and Gas Data, Survey, EPC and Climate Data for over 13,000 Households in Great Britain

The Smart Energy Research Lab (SERL) Observatory dataset described here comprises half-hourly and daily electricity and gas data, SERL survey data, Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) input data and 24 local hourly climate reanalysis variables from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) for over 13,000 households in Great Britain (GB). Participants were recruited in September 2019, September 2020 and January 2021 and their smart meter data are collected from up to one year prior to sign up. Data collection will continue until at least August 2022, and longer if funding allows. Survey data relating to the dwelling, appliances, household demographics and attitudes was collected at sign up. Data are linked at the household level and UK-based academic researchers can apply for access within a secure virtual environment for research projects in the public interest. This is a data descriptor paper describing how the data was collected, the variables available and the representativeness of the sample compared to national estimates. It is intended as a guide for researchers working with or considering using the SERL Observatory dataset, or simply looking to learn more about it

The impact of COVID-19 on household energy consumption in England and Wales from April 2020 to March 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic changed the way people lived, worked, and studied around the world, with direct consequences for domestic energy use. This study assesses the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns in the first two years of the pandemic on household electricity and gas use in England and Wales. Using data for 508 (electricity) and 326 (gas) homes, elastic net regression, neural network and extreme gradient boosting predictive models were trained and tested on pre-pandemic data. The most accurate model for each household was used to create counterfactuals (predictions in the absence of COVID-19) against which observed pandemic energy use was compared. Median monthly model error (CV(RMSE)) was 3.86% (electricity) and 3.19% (gas) and bias (NMBE) was 0.21% (electricity) and −0.10% (gas). Our analysis showed that on average (electricity; gas) consumption increased by (7.8%; 5.7%) in year 1 of the pandemic and by (2.2%; 0.2%) in year 2. The greatest increases were in the winter lockdown (January – March 2021) by 11.6% and 9.0% for electricity and gas, respectively. At the start of 2022 electricity use remained 2.0% higher while gas use was around 1.9% lower than predicted. Households with children showed the greatest increase in electricity consumption during lockdowns, followed by those with adults in work. Wealthier households increased their electricity consumption by more than the less wealthy and continued to use more than predicted throughout the two-year period while the less wealthy returned to pre-pandemic or lower consumption from summer 2021. Low dwelling efficiency was associated with a greater increase in energy consumption during the pandemic. Additionally, this study shows the value of different machine learning techniques for counterfactual modelling at the individual-dwelling level, and our approach can be used to robustly estimate the impact of other events and interventions

Capturing variation in daily energy demand profiles over time with cluster analysis in British homes (September 2019 – August 2022)

This study investigates typical domestic energy demand profiles and their variation over time. It draws on a sample of 13,000 homes from Great Britain, applying k-means cluster analysis to smart meter data on their electricity and gas demand over a three-year period from September 2019 to August 2022. Eight typical demand archetypes are identified from the data, varying in terms of the shape of their demand profile over the course of the day. These include an ‘All daytime’ archetype, where demand rises in the morning and remains high until the evening. Several other archetypes vary in terms of the presence and timing of morning and/or evening peaks. In the case of electricity demand, a ‘Midday trough’ archetype is notable for its negative midday demand and high overnight demand, likely a combination of the effects of rooftop solar panels exporting to the grid during the day and overnight charging of electric vehicles or electric storage heating. The prevalence of each archetype across the sample varies substantially in relation to different temporally-varying factors. Fluctuations in their prevalence on weekends can be identified, as can Christmas Day. Among homes with gas central heating, the prevalence of gas archetypes strongly relates to external temperature, with around half of homes fitting the ‘All daytime’ archetype at temperatures below 0 °C, and few fitting it above 14 °C. COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on work and schooling are associated with households' patterns of daily demand becoming more similar on weekdays and weekends, particularly for households with children and/or workers. The latter group had still not returned to pre-pandemic patterns by March 2022. The results indicate that patterns of daily energy demand vary with factors ranging from societal weekly rhythms and festivals to seasonal temperature changes and system shocks like pandemics, with implications for demand forecasting and policymaking

Franklin County, North Carolina : an action-oriented community diagnosis ; findings and next steps of action

Between October 2006 and April 2007, a team of six students from the School of Public Health at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, conducted an Action-Oriented Community Diagnosis (AOCD) of Franklin County, North Carolina. The purpose of this AOCD was to learn about the strengths, challenges, and needs of the community, to assist the community in identifying priorities, and to bring the community together to openly discuss and work towards action steps that address the identified issues. The AOCD was conducted with the help of preceptors Cynthia Gary and Becky Leonard at the Franklin County Health Department. The AOCD process began with the team becoming acquainted with Franklin County by reviewing available data on the area, attending events, and meeting residents and employees. The team proceeded to conduct 39 interviews with community members and service providers, as well as one focus group of six youth. The team analyzed this data and created a list of the 14 issues that were most often mentioned as priorities to the people of Franklin County. Each issue was summarized in a theme statement that represented the team’s understanding of popular sentiment. With the help of a Forum Planning Committee (FPC) that consisted of nine service providers and community members, the team planned a community forum. The FPC narrowed the greater list of 14 themes to 5, based on importance and changeability. The themes selected were: Youth Recreation and Entertainment: There is a desire for additional public facilities in Franklin County to provide recreation and/or entertainment activities for youth. Economic Development: There is a need to support new and current businesses in Franklin County to enhance local economy and create new job opportunities. Physical Activity: A lack of physical activity options is contributing to increasing rates of obesity in Franklin County. Mental Health: There is an impression that the needs of people with mental health concerns are not being met, either because of a lack of services, lack of awareness of services available, or stigma attached to seeking help for mental health. Transportation: There is a need for inexpensive transportation options to increase access to services and resources for some residents of Franklin County. The community forum took place on April 24, 2007. At the forum, small group discussions led to the creation of action steps for four of the five themes (the discussion on transportation was dissolved for lack of attendees). Forum attendees then volunteered to oversee the execution of each action step, listed below. Youth Recreation and Entertainment: Talk to the board of the Boys & Girls Club about hosting fundraising events for youth participation in recreation. Talk to county political leaders about funding/tax allocation for more recreation facilities and options for youth. Talk to the Franklin County Schools superintendent about a sports uniform recycling program. Contact church leaders about scholarships for youth participation in recreation activities. Communicate with 4-H, Parks and Recreation, and The Franklin Times about the need to increase recreation facilities and activity options in Franklin County. Ask for support from these organizations in creating new options and increasing county-wide communication about recreation and entertainment options for youth. Economic Development: Establish a study committee to look at educational opportunities that match current local job opportunities. Support the application for the 21st Century grant for Franklin County Schools. Encourage continued support for economic development by increasing awareness of activities and initiatives among community members and county commissioners. Build collaboration between agencies (such as the Health Department, Planning, etc.) to work on a one-stop permitting process. Physical Activity: Talk to The Franklin Times about publishing a regular health column written by representatives of community organizations. Encourage physical activity competitions among various places of employment, community groups, schools, and other organizations in the county. Mental Health: Plan a meeting to organize the formation of a mental health advocacy group that will work to increase the number of mental health providers in Franklin County through recruitment and education. The team hopes that the engagement and motivation displayed by the people of Franklin County at the forum will result in continuing momentum to meet and build upon these action steps. In addition, the team would like to make the following recommendations as actions that may help build upon the county’s strengths while addressing some of its needs: Expand inter-agency communication. Many service providers were not aware of other programs and resources in the county. One positive step in this direction is an inter-agency lunch that takes place the last Wednesday of each month. Provide additional activity options for youth other than sports. Involve youth in the planning of facilities or programs that affect youth. Continue to support economic growth and increased job opportunities while respecting the pace and tranquility that residents appreciate. Begin to recognize and address nutrition as a contributor to obesity. Improve communication between decision-makers and the community, to better inform leaders of the county’s needs and the public of the activities and decisions made by their government. Conduct greater in-depth analysis of the needs and implications of the growing Latino population. Work towards greater service provision in Spanish. The purpose of this document is to serve as a resource to Franklin County by describing the Franklin County AOCD process, discussing the findings, and presenting the next steps of action developed by the Franklin County community.Master of Public Healt

Preliminary Assessment of Sponge Biodiversity on Saba Bank, Netherlands Antilles

Background Saba Bank Atoll, Netherlands Antilles, is one of the three largest atolls on Earth and provides habitat for an extensive coral reef community. To improve our knowledge of this vast marine resource, a survey of biodiversity at Saba Bank included a multi-disciplinary team that sampled fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, macroalgae, and sponges. Methodology/Principal Findings A single member of the dive team conducted surveys of sponge biodiversity during eight dives at six locations, at depths ranging from 15 to 30 m. This preliminary assessment documented the presence of 45 species pooled across multiple locations. Rarefaction analysis estimated that only 48 to 84% of species diversity was sampled by this limited effort, clearly indicating a need for additional surveys. An analysis of historical collections from Saba and Saba Bank revealed an additional 36 species, yielding a total of 81 sponge species recorded from this area. Conclusions/Significance This observed species composition is similar to that found on widespread Caribbean reefs, indicating that the sponge fauna of Saba Bank is broadly representative of the Caribbean as a whole. A robust population of the giant barrel sponge, Xestospongia muta, appeared healthy with none of the signs of disease or bleaching reported from other Caribbean reefs; however, more recent reports of anchor chain damage to these sponges suggests that human activities can have dramatic impacts on these communities. Opportunities to protect this extremely large habitat should be pursued, as Saba Bank may serve as a significant reservoir of sponge species diversity