Using Random Sequence Primers in the Polymerase Chain Reaction to identify Gender-Specific Genetic Markers in House Wrens

In order to fully understand the biology of asexually reproducing organism, it is essential that one is able to distinguish the males from the females. In determining the gender of monomorphic birds, standard techniques including visual identification, surgery, and karyotyping are impossible or impractical for large-scale studies. A reliable gender identification method that uses genetic markers identified within the DNA would be an asset to the researcher because it would require only a minimal blood sample which could be collected in the field without harming the bird and stored easily for long periods of time. Griffiths and Tiwari (1993) described such a technique based on the generation of RAPD markers (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA). The use of RAPDs involves the amplification of genomic DNA in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using primers of arbitrary oligonucleotide sequence to generate-a range of DNA fragments that can be separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. This study employs this method to generate a reliable sex probe for the house wren (Troglodytes aedon), using RAPDs to isolate female-specific markers from random locations on the W sex chromosome. Results indicate that after extensive manipulation of the Griffiths and Tiwari protocol, consistent PCR amplification of house wren DNA was achieved. However, further research is necessary to find a primer that will yield W specific fragments in large samples of wrens. If successful, the sex probe will be used in future studies of house wren reproductive strategy. Specifically, gender identification information of house wren nestlings will be used to investigate the maternal condition hypothesis

Comparative phylogeographic analysis suggests a shared history among eastern North American boreal forest birds

Accepted author manuscriptPhylogeographic structure within high-latitude North American birds is likely shaped by a history of isolation in refugia during Pleistocene glaciations. Previous studies of individual species have come to diverse conclusions regarding the number and location of likely refugia, but no studies have explicitly tested for biogeographic concordance in a comparative phylogeographic framework. Here we use a hierarchical approximate Bayesian computation analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences from 653 individuals of 6 bird species that are currently co-distributed in the boreal forest of North America to test for biogeographic congruence. We find support for congruent phylogeographic patterns across species, with shallow divergence dating to the Holocene within each species. Combining genetic results with paleodistribution modeling, we propose that these species shared a single Pleistocene refugium south of the ice sheets in eastern North America. Additionally, we assess modern geographic genetic structure within species, focusing on Newfoundland and disjunct high-elevation populations at the southern periphery of ranges. We find evidence for a “periphery effect” in some species with significant genetic structure among peripheral populations and between peripheral and central populations. Our results suggest that reduced gene flow among peripheral populations, rather than discordant biogeographic histories, can explain the small differences in genetic structure and levels of genetic diversity among co-distributed boreal forest birdsYe

New Species of Extinct Rails (Aves: Rallidae) from Archaeological Sites in the Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia.

v. ill. 23 cm.QuarterlyWe examined 53 bones of rails (Rallidae), previously referred to Gallirallus n. spp., from archaeological sites on four islands in the Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia. We describe three new, extinct, flightless species of Gallirallus: G. roletti (Tahuata), G. gracilitibia (Ua Huka), and G. epulare (Nuku Hiva). Two bones from Hiva Oa, although probably representing another extinct species of Gallirallus, are regarded as an inadequate basis for describing a species. At first human contact, the genus Gallirallus probably included many scores if not hundreds of flightless species on islands from the far western Pacific (Okinawa, Philippines, Halmahera) eastward across most of Oceania. As currently understood, the Marquesas Islands represent the eastern range limit of Gallirallus

Rallidae Kirchman & Steadman, 2006, sensu

Family Rallidae <p> In Oceania, extant species of Rallidae include the crakes (<i>Porzana, Rallina</i>), swamphens (<i>Porphyrio</i>), moorhens (<i>Gallinula</i>), coots (<i>Fulica</i>), and the “typical” rails, all of which we regard as species of <i>Gallirallus sensu lato</i>. Our classification of <i>Gallirallus</i> closely follows those of Olson (1973) and Taylor (1998), although they both recognized the genus <i>Nesoclopeus</i> for <i>G</i>. <i>woodfordi</i> of the Solomon Islands and † <i>G. poecilopterus</i> of Fiji. Olson (1973) put <i>G. pectoralis</i> in <i>Dryolimnas</i> and Taylor (1998) put it in <i>Lewinia</i>. We do not follow Livezey (1998, 2003), who has advocated dividing the typical rails of Oceania among the genera <i>Gallirallus</i>, <i>Nesoclopeus, Tricholimnas</i>, <i>Cabalus,</i> and <i>Habropteryx</i> to highlight morphological distinctiveness associated with flightlessness. Thus, we include in <i>Gallirallus</i> the historically known species <i>australis, philippensis, calayanensis, owstoni, okinawae, † wakensis, torquatus, insignis, † sylvestris, † dieffenbachii, † modestus, woodfordi</i>, † <i>poecilopterus</i>, <i>striatus,</i> and <i>pectoralis,</i> and the fossil species <i>† ripleyi, † huiatua, † vekamatolu, † storrsolsoni, †roletti, † gracilitibia,</i> and <i>† epulare</i> (Table 2). Two of these species occur in Micronesia: the flightless Guam Rail (<i>G. owstoni</i>), formerly endemic to Guam but now extinct in the wild and survives only in captive breeding programs; and the Banded Rail (<i>G. philippensis</i>), a volant species widespread in Oceania but now occurring in Micronesia only in Palau.</p> <p>Species Flight Status Geographic Range</p> <p> <i>G. australis</i> F E New Zealand</p> <p> <i>G. dieffenbachii</i> F †H,P Chatham Islands</p> <p> <i>G. epulare</i> F †P Nuka Hiva, Marquesas</p> <p> <i>G. e r ns tm a y ri</i> F †P New Ireland, Bismarck Archipelago</p> <p> <i>G. gracilitibia</i> F †P Ua Huka, Marquesas</p> <p> <i>G. huiatua</i> F †P Niue</p> <p> <i>G. insignis</i> F E New Britain, Bismarck Archipelago</p> <p> <i>G. lafresnayanus</i> F †H New Caledonia</p> <p> <i>G. modestus</i> F †H,P Chatham Islands</p> <p> <i>G. okinawae</i> F E Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands</p> <p> <i>G. owstoni</i> F C Guam, Mariana Islands</p> <p> <i>G. pacificus</i> F? †H Tahiti, Society Islands</p> <p> <i>G. pendiculentus</i> F †P Tinian, Mariana Islands</p> <p> <i>G. philippensis</i> V E Cocos Is., Philippines, Sundas E. to Samoa, Australia, New</p> <p>Zealand</p> <p> <i>G. pisonii</i> F †P Aguiguan, Mariana Islands</p> <p> <i>G. poecilopterus</i> F †H Taveuni, Viti Levu, and Ovalau, Fiji</p> <p> <i>G. ripleyi</i> F †P Mangaia, Cook Islands</p> <p> <i>G. role t ti</i> F †P Tahuata, Marquesas</p> <p> <i>G. rovianae</i> F E New Georgia Group, Solomon Islands</p> <p> <i>G. storrsolsoni</i> F †P Huahine, Society Islands</p> <p> <i>G. sylvestris</i> F E Lord Howe Island</p> <p> <i>G. temptatus</i> F †P Rota, Mariana Islands</p> <p> <i>G. torquatus</i> V E Philippines, Sulawesi, NW New Guinea</p> <p> <i>G. vekamatolu</i> F †P ‘Eua, Tonga</p> <p> <i>G. wakensis</i> F †H Wake Island</p> <p> <i>G. w o od fo rd i</i> F E Bougainville, Santa Isabel, and Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands</p> <p> <i>G. undescribed</i> sp. F †P Ha’afeva, Tonga</p>Published as part of <i>Kirchman, Jeremy J. & Steadman, David W., 2006, Rails (Rallidae: Gallirallus) from prehistoric archaeological sites in Western Oceania, pp. 1-31 in Zootaxa 1316</i> on pages 6-7, DOI: <a href="http://zenodo.org/record/173941">10.5281/zenodo.173941</a&gt

Gallirallus pisonii Kirchman & Steadman, 2006, new species

† Gallirallus pisonii new species Holotype. Complete coracoid UF 62934 (Figure 2 A) from the Pisonia Rockshelter archaeological site, Aguiguan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Paratypes. Rostrum anterior to nares UF 62918. Incomplete mandibles UF 62912–62914, 62926, 62946, 62947. Complete quadrates UF 62888, 62889, 62941. Complete and partial vertebrae UF 62880, 62890, 62919 (lot of 10), 62933, 62943, 62955. Incomplete sterni UF 62892 / 62893 (Figure 3 A, two pieces glued together), 62922. Humeral and sternal ends of coracoids UF 62881, 62884, 62910, 62911, 62931, 62939, 62940. Anterior scapulae UF 62878, 62915, 62916. Incomplete humeri UF 62887, 62902, 62903. Distal ulna UF 62925. Distal radius UF 62953. Incomplete carpometacarpi UF 62882, 62883, 62917 (Figure 2 A), 62923, 62924. Complete phalanx 1 of digitalis majoris UF 62938. Incomplete synsacrum UF 62948. Femoral shaft UF 62875. Proximal and distal tibiotarsi UF 62876, 62894–62901, 62927, 62937, 62944. Proximal fibulae UF 62932, 62942, 62954. Proximal and distal tarsometatarsi UF 62877, 62879, 62904–62909, 62928, 62929, 62949–62952. Pedal phalanges UF 62870–62873, 62874 (lot of nine), 62855, 62886 (lot of six), 62891 (lot of 48), 62920, 62921 (lot of 13), 62930 (lot of nine), 62935, 62936 (lot of 22), 62945 (lot of 24), 62956. Diagnosis. A small to medium­sized rail (smaller than Gallirallus philippensis; Table 3) with the following unique combination of characters (summarized in Table 4). Mandible: fenestra mandibulae caudalis large. Sternum: angle of crista lateralis, relative to dorsal margin in lateral aspect, ca. 50 °; carina sterni higher than in G. owstoni but lower than in G. philippensis. Coracoid: facies articularis sternalis narrow, shallow; impressio musculo sternocoracoracoidei less concave; corpus coracoidei, in dorsal aspect, wide relative to processus procoracoideus; facies articularis clavicularis protruding little from corpus coracoidei. Scapula: in proximal aspect, area between facies articularis humeralis and facies articularis clavicularis shallow. Humerus: caput humeri shallow in proximal aspect; incisura capitis shallow. Carpometacarpus: short and slender relative to leg elements. Etymology. Named after the type locality, Pisonia Rockshelter, which in turn was named after an immense tree of Pisonia grandis that grew nearby and provided badly needed shade while Connie Bodner, Scott Derrickson, John Groves, and David Lee worked with Steadman to excavate the site in 1994. The name pisonii is a genitive adjective. mean, range, and sample size. M = male, F = female, U = unknown sex, ­­­ = cannot be evaluated. G. philippensis is volant; all others are flightless. G. owstoni G. o w s t o n i † G. temptatus † G. pisonii M F U U Guam, Marianas Guam, Marianas Rota, Marianas Aguiguan, Marianas Coracoid 23.6 22.8 22.3 24.4 Total length 22.9–24.7 21.6–24.3 1 1 7 11 Sternal facet width 6.2 5.9 5.2 6.0 6.1–6.3 5.2–6.2 1 1 7 11 Minimum shaft width 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.5–2.8 2.3–3.0 1 1 7 11 Humerus 47.5 44.7 ­­­ ­­­ Total length 45.3–51.1 42.9–46.8 7 11 Distal width 6.5 6.1 ­­­ ­­­ 6.3–6.7 5.9–6.3 7 11 Minimum shaft width 2.8 2.7 ­­­ ­­­ 2.6–3.1 2.6–3.0 7 11 Ulna 39.1 36.6 ­­­ ­­­ Total length 36.8–41.5 34.8–38.7 7 11 Minimum shaft width 3.0 2.7 ­­­ ­­­ 2.8–3.2 2.6–3.0 7 11 Carpometacarpus 25.0 23.6 ­­­ ­­­ Total length 23.0–26.7 22.1–25.1 7 11 Femur 56.0 52.4 ­­­ ­­­ Total length 54.0–59.2 49.2–54.6 7 11 Distal width 9.5 8.7 ­­­ ­­­ 8.9–9.9 8.4–9.0 7 11 Minimum shaft width 3.8 3.6 ­­­ ­­­ 3.3–4.0 3.4–3.9 7 11 Tarsometatarsus 51.9 48.5 47.4 ­­­ Total length 48.7–54.9 46.2–50.6 1 7 11 Proximal width 7.6 7.1 6.6 5.6 7.0–8.2 6.7–7.3 6.4–6.8 5.6–5.7 7 11 2 2 Distal width 8.0 7.4 7.4 6.1 7.4–8.5 7.2–7.6 1 1 7 11 Minimum shaft width 3.8 3.4 3.4 3.0 3.5–4.0 3.2–3.8 3.3–3.5 3.0–3.1 7 11 2 2 † G. pendiculentus G. philippensis G. philippensis U M F Tinian, Marianas Oceania* Oceania* Coracoid 21.7 26.8 23.2 Total length 20.2–23.7 26.2–27.5 21.8–24.5 7 6 6 Sternal facet width 5.6 6.6 5.5 5.3–5.9 6.1–7.3 5.1–5.9 5 6 6 Minimum shaft width 2.4 3.0 2.8 2.2–2.7 2.7–3.2 2.5–3.0 9 6 6 Humerus 42.0 51.3 45.6 Total length 41.2–42.7 49.2–53.0 41.5–49.3 2 6 6 Distal width 6.2 7.1 6.1 5.7–7.1 6.9–7.5 5.9–6.3 17 6 6 Minimum shaft width 2.8 3.3 2.9 2.6–3.1 3.2–3.4 2.7–3.3 13 5 6 Ulna 36.0 43.9 39.2 Total length 34.6–38.0 41.4–44.8 35.2–43.6 3 6 6 Minimum shaft width 2.4 3.0 2.7 2.2–2.5 2.8–3.1 2.6–2.8 9 6 6 Carpometacarpus 23.3 29.0 26.3 Total length 1 27.0­30.3 24.4­29.4 4 6 Femur 50.8 53.8 47.3 Total length 47.5­53.2 51.3­54.9 45.0­49.7 5 6 6 Distal width 8.1 8.7 7.4 7.5–9.1 8.4–9.1 7.0–7.9 9 6 6 Minimum shaft width 3.4 4.0 3.3 3.1–3.5 3.7–4.2 3.1–3.5 7 6 6 Tarsometatarsus 41.6 48.0 42.5 Total length 38.4–46.5 45.3–49.0 40.8–45.2 7 6 6 Proximal width 6.2 7.0 6.1 5.6–7.3 6.7–7.2 5.8–6.6 17 6 6 Distal width 6.5 7.1 6.3 6.1–6.8 6.7–7.5 6.0–6.9 14 6 6 Minimum shaft width 3.1 3.5 3.0 2.7–3.7 3.1–3.6 2.8–3.3 17 6 6 Width of distal end relative to length and wide ­­­ ­­width of corpus humeri Depressio musculo brachialis deep, with distinct shallow, with shallow, with indistinct margin indistinct margin margin Carpometacarpus Remarks. We suspect that † G. pisonii probably was flightless, although skeletal measurements do not strongly support this statement. For example, the sternum UF 62892 / 62893 has a carinal depth of 10.8 mm and a sternal width at the sulcus articularis coracoidei of 10.7 mm, values that are intermediate between those in modern specimens of the volant G. philippensis and the flightless G. owstoni. The shaft of the holotypical coracoid is slender and the carpometacarpus is very small, indicating reduced flight capability. The leg bones of † G. pisonii cannot be reliably distinguished from those of G. philippensis.Published as part of Kirchman, Jeremy J. & Steadman, David W., 2006, Rails (Rallidae: Gallirallus) from prehistoric archaeological sites in Western Oceania, pp. 1-31 in Zootaxa 1316 on pages 10-17, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17394

Gallirallus temptatus Kirchman & Steadman, 2006, new species

† Gallirallus temptatus new species Holotype. Complete coracoid UF 63302 (Figure 2 B) from the Route 100 archaeological site, Rota, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Paratypes. From the Route 100 site: Rostrum missing both lateral rami UF 63296. Frontal­interorbital portion of cranium UF 63293. Complete vertebrae UF 63301, 63305. Coracoid missing sternal end UF 63292. Scapula missing posterior half UF 63300. Proximal ulna UF 63304. Proximal carpometacarpus UF 63299 (Figure 2 B). Distal tibiotarsus UF 63319. Tarsometatarsus lacking distal trochleae UF 63303. From the Mochong site: Distal femur UF 62964. Proximal tibiotarsus UF 62965. Complete tarsometatarsus UF 62962. Distal tarsometatarsus UF 62963. Diagnosis. A medium­sized rail, slightly smaller overall than Gallirallus philippensis (Table 3), with the following unique combination of characters (summarized in Table 4). Coracoid: facies articularis sternalis narrow, shallow; foramen nutrium supracoracoidei large; lateral margin of facies articularis humeralis short and rounded in humeral aspect. Scapula: in proximal aspect, area between facies articularis humeralis and facies articularis clavicularis shallow. Ulna: intermediate (compared to G. owstoni and G. philippensis) in size relative to leg elements, with deep, well­emarginated depressio musculo brachialis. Carpometacarpus: length from processus pisiformis to proximal end of spatium intermetacarpalis short. Etymology. From the Latin tento (tempto), which means “try, prove, put to the test” (Brown 1956: 819). The name temptatus, a masculine adjective, refers to how trying it has been for rails of the genus Gallirallus to survive on Rota. † Gallirallus temptatus became extinct in prehistoric times, whereas biologists have attempted to establish a wild population of G. owstoni on Rota since 1990, with little success in spite of valiant effort. Remarks. Many of the characters used to diagnose † Gallirallus temptatus are associated with reduction of the flight apparatus relative to overall body size. The leg bones of † G. temptatus are not distinguishable from those of G. philippensis.Published as part of Kirchman, Jeremy J. & Steadman, David W., 2006, Rails (Rallidae: Gallirallus) from prehistoric archaeological sites in Western Oceania, pp. 1-31 in Zootaxa 1316 on pages 8-10, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17394

Gallirallus pendiculentus Kirchman & Steadman, 2006, new species

† <i>Gallirallus pendiculentus</i> new species <p> <b>Holotype:</b> Complete humerus UF 63419 (Figure 4 A), Unai Chulu archaeological site, Tinian, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.</p> <p> <b>Paratypes:</b> Bones from two archaeological sites on Tinian are referred to <i>G. pendiculentus</i>. From Unai Chulu (complete bones underlined): Rostra UF 62140, 62300, 62301, 63385, 63462. Quadrates UF 63393, 63468, 63516, 63552. Mandibles UF 62378, 62664, 62665, 63366, 63447, 63495, 63559. Vertebra UF 63440. Sterna UF 62295, 62320, 62334, 62354, 62377, 62387, 62669, 63432. Scapulae UF 62091–62094, 62164, 62319, 62353, 62391, 62634, 62683, 63388, 63433, 63459, 63467, 63473, 63494, 63515, 63546, 63547. Coracoids UF 61942, 61951, 61974, 62009, 62022, 62046–62048, 62078, 62124, 62160, 62167, 62198, 62227, 62307, 62313, 62359–62361, 62380, 62393, 62425, 62431, 62635, 62675, 62687, 63361, 63368, 63386, 63387, 63402, 63423, 63430, 63503, 63504, 63600, 63601, 63617, 63618, 63696. Humeri UF 61905, 61908, 61915, 61952, 62003, 62008, 62015, 62024, 62036, 62037, 62081, 62090, 62117, 62126–62128, 62133, 62146, 62179–62182, 62262, 62263, 62335, 62365, 62374, 62381, 62383, 62413, 62439, 62441,62636–62638, 62639, 62759, 62765, 63367, 63370, 63383, 63392, 63398, 63412, 63426, 63498–63503, 63522, 63523, 63529, 63534, 63543–63545, 63553, 63557, 63570, 63580, 63585,63591, 63598, 53599, 63610, 63614–63616, 63644, 63645, 63673, 63674, 63694, 63695. Ulnae UF 61907, 61916, 61917, 61945, 62209, 62312, 62414, 62264, 62265, 63375, 63404, 63429 (Figure 4 D), 63521, 63530, 63548, 63556. Radii UF 62088, 62089, 62171, 62616, 62666, 63456,63549, 63612, 63646, 63708. Carpometacarpi UF 61939, 61941, 62049, 62050, 62095, 62134, 62135, 62150, 62199, 62366, 62394, 62415, 62416, 62424, 62432, 62274, 62275, 62668, 62711, 63372 (Figure 2 C), 63384, 63442, 63480, 63481, 63588, 63594, 63609, 63641–63643,63676–63678. Phalanx 1 of digitus majoris UF 62384. Pelvis UF 63452. Femora UF 61894, 61904, 61922, 61934, 61972, 61975, 61976, 62016, 62020, 62031, 62043, 62080, 62168, 62178, 62228, 62294, 62327, 62331, 62332, 62350, 62358, 62376, 62389, 62619, 62682, 62715, 62746, 62761, 62769, 62775, 63357, 63362, 63369, 63376, 63377, 63380, 63400, 63431, 63443, 63448, 63451, 63463, 63466, 63469, 63472, 63475, 63490–63493, 63511, 63517, 63518, 63525, 63528, 63531, 63541, 63560, 63592, 63613, 63647–63651, 63700. Tibiotarsus UF 61896–61899, 61902, 61903, 61909, 61910, 61913, 61914, 61920, 61938, 61947, 61963/61964 (two pieces glued together), 61977, 61988, 61992, 61997, 61998, 62002, 62005, 62006, 62010, 62014, 62018, 62019, 62023, 62025, 62027–62030, 62032–62034, 62038–62042, 62051–62054, 62056, 62057, 62059–62061, 62082–62087, 62112–62016, 62130–62132, 62141–62145, 62151, 62153, 62156, 62157, 62161–62163, 62169, 62170, 62184–62186, 62188, 62196, 62197, 62201–62208, 62229–62232, 62255–62261, 62291, 62311, 62315–62317, 62328–62330, 62349, 62356, 62357, 62367, 62369, 62379, 62382, 62392, 62400, 62401, 62410–62412, 62428, 62429, 62437, 62438, 62502, 62600, 62633, 62655–62663, 62701, 62703, 62704, 62712, 62716, 62717, 62720, 62737, 62763, 62764, 62771, 62772, 62777, 62779, 63358, 63359, 63363, 63371, 63374, 63378, 63379, 63382, 63389, 63399, 63405–63410, 63413–63416, 63420, 63427, 63434, 63435, 63438, 63439, 63444, 63446, 63449, 63464, 63465, 63471, 63482–63485, 63488, 63489, 63504–63510, 63512, 63519, 63524, 63538–63540, 63550, 63551, 63561–63569, 63577–63579, 63586, 63587, 64595–63597, 63608, 63619–63626, 63652–63658, 63679–63682, 63691, 63692, 63695. Tarsometatarsus UF 61895, 61901, 61921, 61944, 61999, 62001, 62007, 62017, 62026, 62035, 62044, 62045, 62058, 62077, 62079, 62120–62123, 62125, 62147–62149, 62152, 62154, 62158, 62159, 62165, 62166, 62172–62177, 62187, 62195, 62210–62217, 62219, 62233–62237, 62266–62272, 62308–62310, 62314, 62336–62340, 62346–62348, 62355, 62362–62364, 62386, 62370, 62375, 62386, 62390, 62399, 62423, 62430, 62436, 62617, 62648–62654, 62686, 62729, 62753, 62756–62758, 62766, 62773, 63360, 63364, 63365, 63381, 63391, 63411, 63421, 63425, 63428, 63436, 63453, 63460, 63461, 63470 (Figure 5 B), 63477–63479, 63496, 63497, 63513, 63514, 63532, 63533, 63571–63573, 63576, 63589, 63590, 63593, 63627 (Figure 5 A), 63628–63633, 63659–63663, 63683. Pedal phalanges UF 61923, 61924, 61928, 61933, 61937, 61956–61958, 61970, 61971, 61978–61981, 61986, 61987, 61991, 62013, 62055, 62062–62076, 62100–62110, 62129, 62136–62139, 62155, 62188–62193, 62220–62226, 62238–62254, 62276–62290, 62302–62305, 62318, 62341–62345, 62351, 62352, 62371–62373, 62395–62398, 62402–62404, 62417–62422, 62426, 62427, 62433–62435, 62608, 62611–62613, 62632, 62640–62647, 62691, 62692, 62695, 62697, 62739, 62747, 62450, 62455, 62474, 62762, 63373, 62778, 63394–63397, 63401, 63403, 63417, 63437, 63441, 63520, 63535–63537, 63575, 63581, 63602–63605, 63611, 63634–63640, 63664–63673, 63684–63689, 63690, 63476.</p> <p>From Railhunter Rockshelter: Rostra UF 60023, 60027, 60042, 60044, 60071, 60147, 60143, 60148, 60199. Mandibles UF 60027, 60108, 60129, 60147, 60148, 60198, 60210. Vertebra UF 60209. Sterna UF 60072, 60109, 60142 (Figure 4 B), 60149, 60166. Coracoids UF 60042, 60045, 60058, 60078, 60130, 60143, 60178, 60110 (Figure 2 C), 60111, 60217, 60219, 60225, 60226. Scapulae UF 60029, 60030, 60059, 60073–60077, 60112, 60146, 60150, 60179, 60180, 60188–60190, 60224. Humeri UF 60046, 60079–60081, 60131, 60151, 60167, 60181, 60191, 60212. Ulnae UF 60083, 60084, 60185. Radii UF 60113, 60132, 60133, 60152, 60192. Carpometacarpi UF 60085, 60060. Pelvis UF 60086. Femora UF 60049, 60061, 60134–60137, 60153, 60157, 60168, 60177, 60182, 60193 (Figure 5 A), 60194, 60158, 60114, 60115/60116 (Figure 5 B, two pieces glued together). Tibiotarsi UF 60031, 60032, 60047, 60048, 60050, 60051, 60062–60066, 60087–60096, 60117–60119, 60126–60128, 60138, 60175, 60186, 60200–60203, 60207, 60213, 60220, 60227. Fibulae UF 60154, 60195. Tarsometatarsi UF 60033–60035, 60052, 60067, 60097–60102, 60139, 60144, 60145, 60155, 60156, 60159–60161, 60169–60172, 60176, 60187, 60196, 60214, 60215. Pedal phalanges UF 60036–60041, 60082, 60103–60107, 60120–60125, 60140, 60141, 60162–60165, 60173, 60174, 60183, 60197, 60204–60206, 60208, 60216, 60218, 60220, 60221.</p> <p> <b>Diagnosis.</b> A medium­sized rail, slightly smaller than <i>Gallirallus philippensis</i> (Table 3), and with disproportionately shorter wing elements. Elements of the pectoral girdle and wing distinguish † <i>G. pendiculentus</i> from all other known species of <i>Gallirallus</i>, as follows. Sternum: spina externa of rostrum sterni absent; margo cranialis of carina sterni shifted dorsally and caudally relative to volant congeners; margo cranialis of labrum dorsale deeply notched (<90°) to form a v­shaped medial separation between the sulci articularis coracoidei. Coracoid: corpus coracoidei stout, relatively short (Table 3); humero­ventral half of corpus coracoidei wide, with much protrudence of facies articularis clavicularis; lateral margin of facies articularis humeralis short, rounded in humeral aspect. Humerus: short relative to leg elements; distal end wide relative to length and width of corpus humeri (Table 3); as in the flightless species <i>G. owstoni</i>, <i>G. australis</i>, and † <i>G. ripleyi,</i> the corpus humeralis with a straight margo cranialis (rather than sigmoid) in dorsal aspect; crista bicipitalis reduced distally; distal margin of crista pectoralis slopes more gradually to corpus humeri; fossa musculo brachialis deep; processus supracondylaris dorsalis large. Ulna: similar in size and proportion to <i>G. striatus</i> and small female <i>G. philippensis</i>; depressio musculo brachialis relatively deep and more distinctly emarginated than in <i>G. philippensis</i>, <i>G. torquatus</i>, <i>G. striatus</i>, <i>G. o w s t o n i</i>, or <i>G. australis</i>, resembling the condition seen in † <i>G. r i p l e y i</i> and † <i>G. storrsolsoni</i>, the latter having the deepest, most prominent depressio musculo brachialis; tuberculum carpale juts abruptly out from corpus ulnare (rather than gradually sloping to corpus ulnare) and is triangular rather than circular in ventral aspect. Carpometacarpus: shorter but not more slender than in female <i>G. philippensis</i>, but less shortened than in <i>G. owstoni</i>. Femur and tibiotarsus: not smaller than (Table 2) or qualitatively different from <i>G. philippensis</i>. Tarsometarsus: slightly more robust (shorter on average but not wider) than in <i>G. philippensis;</i> trochlea metatarsi III relatively wide in dorsal aspect.</p> <p> <b>Etymology.</b> Derived from the Latin word <i>pendiculus</i>, meaning a noose or snare (Brown 1956: 812). The name <i>pendiculentus</i> is an adjective (“of the snare”) modifying the masculine Latin noun <i>Gallirallus.</i> It refers to the manner by which we believe the remains of this flightless species were accumulated, that is by hunters using leg­hold snares.</p> <p> <b>Remarks.</b> The first and second components identified by our PCA of 17 post­cranial skeletal characters (Table 5) summarize 89.42% and 8.08% of morphological variance, respectively. Each of the subsequent components accounts for less than 1% of the variance. Correlation coefficients (Table 4) indicate that the first component describes the overall body size of each species, whereas the second component describes the degree of flightlessness, with high positive values corresponding to reduced length of wing elements and high negative values corresponding to robust (wide) leg elements. Mean values of species plotted along these axes (Figure 6) separate known flightless species from known volant ones. The position of † <i>G. pendiculentus</i> lies on or just above the threshold for flightlessness, suggesting that it was likely to have been flightless.</p> <p> Sternal characters associated with flightlessess indicate that † <i>G. pendiculentus</i> had reduced flight capability relative to the three similarly sized, volant species (<i>G. philippensis, G. striatus</i>, and <i>G. torquatus</i>), but a stronger degree of volancy than in the fully flightless species <i>G. owstoni</i>, † <i>G. w a k e n s i s</i>, <i>G. woodfordi</i>, or especially <i>G. australis</i>. The apex of the carina sterni is not preserved in any specimen of † <i>G. pendiculentus</i>, precluding measurement of carina depth. Nevertheless, the condition of the sternum corroborates the hypothesis that † <i>G. pendiculentus</i> was near the threshold of flightlessness on the basis of PCA of other postcranial elements (Figure 6).</p>Published as part of <i>Kirchman, Jeremy J. & Steadman, David W., 2006, Rails (Rallidae: Gallirallus) from prehistoric archaeological sites in Western Oceania, pp. 1-31 in Zootaxa 1316</i> on pages 18-21, DOI: <a href="http://zenodo.org/record/173941">10.5281/zenodo.173941</a&gt