Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Maintaining Plant Production

Given the central importance of protected area systems in local, regional and global conservation strategies, it is vital that there is a good understanding of their effectiveness in maintaining ecological functioning. Here, we provide, to our knowledge, the first such global analysis, focusing on plant production, a “supporting” ecosystem function necessary for multiple other ecosystem services. We use data on the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) as a measure of variation in plant production in the core, boundary and surroundings of more than 1000 large protected areas over a 25 year period. Forested protected areas were higher (or similar), and those non-forested were lower (or similar), in NDVI than their surrounding areas, and these differences have been sustained. The differences from surrounding areas have increased for evergreen broadleaf forests and barren grounds, decreased for grasslands, and remained similar for deciduous forests, woodlands, and shrublands, reflecting different pressures on those surroundings. These results are consistent with protected areas being effective both in the representation and maintenance of plant production. However, widespread overall increases in NDVI during the study period suggest that plant production within the core of non-forested protected areas has become higher than it was in the surroundings of those areas in 1982, highlighting that whilst the distinctiveness of protected areas from their surroundings has persisted the nature of that difference has changed

Shifts in Species Composition Constrain Restoration of Overgrazed Grassland Using Nitrogen Fertilization in Inner Mongolian Steppe, China

Long-term livestock over-grazing causes nitrogen outputs to exceed inputs in Inner Mongolia, suggesting that low levels of nitrogen fertilization could help restore grasslands degraded by overgrazing. However, the effectiveness of such an approach depends on the response of production and species composition to the interactive drivers of nitrogen and water availability. We conducted a five-year experiment manipulating precipitation (NP: natural precipitation and SWP: simulated wet year precipitation) and nitrogen (0, 25 and 50 kg N ha-1 yr-1) addition in Inner Mongolia. We hypothesized that nitrogen fertilization would increase forage production when water availability was relatively high. However, the extent to which nitrogen would co-limit production under average or below average rainfall in these grasslands was unknown

Geographical variation in morphology of Chaetosiphella stipae stipae Hille Ris Lambers, 1947 (Hemiptera: Aphididae: Chaitophorinae)

Chaetosiphella stipae stipae is a xerothermophilous aphid, associated with Palaearctic temperate steppe zones or dry mountain valleys, where there are grasses from the genus Stipa. Its geographical distribution shows several populations that are spread from Spain, across Europe and Asia Minor, to Mongolia and China. Geographical variation in chaetotaxy and other morphological features were the basis to consider whether individuals from different populations are still the same species. Moreover, using Ch. stipae stipae and Stipa species occurrences, as well as climatic variables, we predict potential geographical distributions of the aphid and its steppe habitat. Additionally, for Stipa species we projected current climatic conditions under four climate change scenarios for 2050 and 2070. While highly variable, our results of morphometric analysis demonstrates that all Ch. stipae stipae populations are one very variable subspecies. And in view of predicted climate change, we expect reduction of Stipa grasslands. The disappearance of these ecosystems could result in stronger separation of the East-European and Asian steppes as well as European ‘warm-stage’ refuges. Therefore, the geographic morphological variability that we see today in the aphid subspecies Ch. stipae stipae may in the future lead to speciation and creation of separate subspecies or species

Origin, management and reclamation technologies of salt-affected and flooded soils in the Inland Pampas of Argentina

The halo-hydromorphic soils in the Inland Pampas, located in subhumid and semiarid environments of central Argentina, are governed by the depth and salinity of water table, salt content and sodium in the profile, and the excess of water. Its aptitude of use is ruled by the A horizon thickness, cemented horizons (hardpans or fragipans) and occurrence/absence of plant cover. The occurrence of strong natric horizons interacts with heavy rainfall or underground water rise and causes floods or waterlogging. In recent years, there has been a generalized rise of underground water, causing waterlogging and salinity problems, even in non-saline cropped soils. Tested soil management and reclamation techniques of those halo-hydromorphic soils are summarily analyzed. The technologies were grouped according to their effects on soils, vegetation, and surface and underground water. They include chemical and biological treatments, grazing management, fertilization, measures to control the salt rising from phreatic water, runoff control, tree “biodrainage” and others. The environmental and economic success and perdurability of such technologies could be relatively guaranteed only by a site-specific approach, on account of the high spatial and temporal variability of those environments.Fil: Taboada, Miguel A.. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria; ArgentinaFil: Damiano, Francisco. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Centro de Investigación de Recursos Naturales. Instituto de Clima y Agua; ArgentinaFil: Cisneros, Jose Manuel. Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto. Facultad de Agronomía y Veterinaria; ArgentinaFil: Lavado, Raul Silvio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Parque Centenario. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biociencias Agrícolas y Ambientales. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Agronomía. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biociencias Agrícolas y Ambientales; Argentin

Targeting landscapes to identify mitigation options in smallholder agriculture

This chapter presents a method for targeting landscapes with the objective of assessing mitigation options for smallholder agriculture. It presents alternatives in terms of the degree of detail and complexity of the analysis, to match the requirement of research and development initiatives. We address heterogeneity in land-use decisions that is linked to the agroecological characteristics of the landscape and to the social and economic profiles of the land users. We believe that as projects implement this approach, and more data become available, the method will be refined to reduce costs and increase the efficiency and effectiveness of mitigation in smallholder agriculture. The approach is based on the assumption that landscape classifications reflect differences in land productivity and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and can be used to scale up point or field-level measurements. At local level, the diversity of soils and land management can be meaningfully summarized using a suitable typology. Field types reflecting small-scale fertility gradients are correlated to land quality, land productivity and quite likely to GHG emissions. A typology can be a useful tool to connect farmers' fields to landscape units because it represents the inherent quality of the land and human-induced changes, and connects the landscape to the existing socioeconomic profiles of smallholders. The method is explained using a smallholder system from western Kenya as an example

Environmental change and the phenology of European aphids

Aphids, because of their short generation time and low developmental threshold temperatures, are an insect group expected to respond particularly strongly to environmental changes. Forty years of standardized, daily data on the abundance of flying aphids have been brought together from countries throughout Europe, through the EU Thematic Network 'EXAMINE'. Relationships between phenology, represented by date of first appearance in a year in a suction trap, of 29 aphid species and environmental data have been quantified using the residual maximum likelihood (REML) methodology. These relationships have been used with climate change scenario data to suggest plausible changes in aphid phenology. In general, the date of first record of aphid species in suction traps is expected to advance, the rate of advance varying with location and species, but averaging 8 days over the next 50 years. Strong relationships between aphid phenology and environmental variables have been found for many species, but they are notably weaker in species living all year on trees. Canonical variate analysis and principal coordinate analysis were used to determine ordinations of the 29 species on the basis of the presence/absence of explanatory variables in the REML models. There was strong discrimination between species with different life cycle strategies and between species feeding on herbs and trees, suggesting the possible value of trait-based groupings in predicting responses to environmental changes