Aaltomuoto – avain laserkeilainhavaintojen syvällisempään ymmärrykseen

Tieteen tori: Yksityiskohtainen metsävaratiet

Kohti metsien laserkeilausmittausten syvällisempää ymmärrystä

This thesis presents basic research on how airborne LiDAR measurements of forest vegetation are influenced by the interplay of the geometric-optical properties of vegetation, sensor function and acquisition settings. Within the work, examining the potential of waveform (WF) recording sensors was of particular interest. Study I focused upon discrete return LiDAR measurements of understory trees. It showed that transmission losses influenced the intensity of observations and echo triggering probabilities, and also skewed the distribution of echoes towards those triggered by highly reflective or dense targets. The intensity data were of low value for species identification, but the abundance of understory trees could be predicted based on echo height distributions. In study II, a method of close-range terrestrial photogrammetry was developed. Images were shown as being useful for visualizations and even the geometric quality control of LiDAR data. The strength of backscattering was shown to correlate with the projected area extracted from the images. In study III, a LiDAR simulation model was developed and validated against real measurements. The model was able to be used for sensitivity analyses to illustrate how plant structure or different pulse properties influence the WF data. Both simulated and real data showed that WF data were able to capture small-scale variations in the structural and optical properties of juvenile forest vegetation. Study IV illustrated the potential of WF data in the species classification of larger trees. The WF features that separated tree species were also dependent on other variables such as tree size and phenology. Inherent between-tree differences in structure were quantified and the effects of pulse density on the features were examined. Overall, the thesis provides basic findings on how LiDAR pulses interact with forest vegetation, and serves to link theory with real observations. The results contribute to an improved understanding of LiDAR measurements and their limitations, and thus provide support for further improvements in both data interpretation methods and specific sensor design.Väitöskirja käsittelee metsien mittausta ilma-aluksesta tehdyn laserkeilauksen avulla. Perustutkimusluonteisessa työssä selvitettiin, miten metsän rakenne ja heijastusominaisuudet sekä keilain- ja keilauskohtaiset parametrit vaikuttavat laserkeilaimella tehtyihin mittauksiin. Lisäksi selvitettiin aaltomuotolaserkeilainten käyttömahdollisuuksia verrattuna yleisemmin käytettyihin kaikulaserkeilaimiin. Osajulkaisussa I tutkittiin alikasvospuustosta kaikulaserkeilaimella tehtyjä mittauksia. Energiahäviöt ylempiin latvuskerroksiin vaikuttivat todennäköisyyteen saada kaikuja alikasvospuista ja vääristivät kaikujen jakaumaa siten, että kaikuja saatiin eniten voimakkaasti heijastavista kohteista. Laserkaikujen intensiteetti ei soveltunut alikasvoksen puulajin tunnistukseen, mutta alikasvospuuston määrää pystyttiin ennustamaan kaikujen korkeusjakauman avulla. Osajulkaisussa II kehitettiin maastofotogrammetriaan perustuva menetelmä laserkeilaustutkimuksen tueksi. Maastossa otettujen digikuvien avulla pystyttiin visualisoimaan laserkaikuja ja -aaltomuotoja sekä tutkimaan niiden geometrista tarkkuutta. Kuvilta laskettu kasvillisuuden silhuettiala oli yhteydessä lasersignaalin voimakkuuteen. Osajulkaisussa III kehitettiin simulointimalli lasermittausten mallintamiseen ja verrattiin simuloituja aineistoja taimikkokasvillisuudesta aaltomuotolaserkeilaimella tehtyihin mittauksiin. Simuloimalla näytettiin, miten kasvillisuuden rakenne ja laserkeilaimen ominaisuudet vaikuttavat mittauksiin. Tulokset osoittivat, että aaltomuotolaserkeilaimella tehdyt mittaukset kuvaavat taimikkokasvillisuuden rakennetta ja niitä on mahdollista hyödyntää taimikkokasvillisuuden kartoituksessa. Osajulkaisussa IV tutkittiin aaltomuotolaserkeilaimella tehtyjen mittausten käyttöä puulajin tunnistuksessa. Aaltomuotolaserkeilaus paransi tuloksia verrattuna kaikulaserin tallentaman intensiteetin käyttöön. Lisäksi selvitettiin, mitkä muut tekijät puulajin lisäksi vaikuttavat lasermittauksiin. Tunnetuista tekijöistä puuyksilöiden välistä lasersignaalin vaihtelua selittivät parhaiten puun pituus ja fenologinen tila, mutta aineistoon jäi paljon puuyksilöstä riippuvaa selittämätöntä vaihtelua. Väitöskirjan tulokset lisäävät ymmärrystä metsäkasvillisuudesta tehtyhin laserkeilausmittauksiin vaikuttavista tekijöistä ja luovat perustaa keilainlaitteiden sekä aineistojen tulkintamenetelmien jatkokehitykselle

Quantitative analysis of the links between forest structure and land surface albedo on a global scale

Forests are critical in regulating climate by altering the Earth's surface albedo. Therefore, there is an urgent need to enhance our knowledge about the effects of forest structure on albedo. Here, we present a global assessment of the links between forest structure and albedo at a 1-km spatial resolution using generalized additive models (GAMs). We used remotely sensed data to obtain variables representing forest structure, including forest density, leaf area index, and tree cover, during the peak growing season in 2005 with pure forest pixels that cover similar to 7% of the Earth's surface. Furthermore, we estimated black-sky albedo at a solar zenith angle of 38 degrees using the most recent collection of the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS; version 6) at shortwave, near-infrared, and visible spectral regions. In addition, for the first time, we mapped the magnitude of the relationship between forest structure and albedo at each pixel with a 0.5-degree spatial resolution. Our results suggested that forest structure may modulate albedo in most of the sub-biomes. The response of shortwave albedo was always positive to the leaf area index and negative to the tree cover (except for deciduous broadleaf forests in mediterranean and temperate regions), while the response to forest density varied across space in 2005. The spatial map affirmed that the links between forest structure and albedo vary over geographical locations. In sum, our study emphasized the importance of forest structure in the surface albedo regulation. This paper provides the first spatially explicit evidence of the magnitude of relationships between forest structure and albedo on a global scale.Peer reviewe

Estimation of boreal forest floor lichen cover using hyperspectral airborne and field data

| openaire: EC/H2020/771049/EU//FREEDLES Funding Information: This study was supported by the Academy of Finland (DIMEBO, grant number: 323004). This study has also received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 771049). The text reflects only the authors’ view and the Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains. Publisher Copyright: © 2023, Finnish Society of Forest Science. All rights reserved.Lichens are sensitive to competition from vascular plants, intensive silviculture, pollution and reindeer and caribou grazing, and can therefore serve as indicators of environmental changes. Hyperspectral remote sensing data has been proved promising for estimation of plant diversity, but its potential for forest floor lichen cover estimation has not yet been studied. In this study, we investigated the use of hyperspectral data in estimating ground lichen cover in boreal forest stands in Finland. We acquired airborne and in situ hyperspectral data of lichen-covered forest plots, and applied multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis to estimate the fractional cover of ground lichens in these plots. Estimation of lichen cover based on in situ spectral data was very accurate (coefficient of determination (r2) 0.95, root mean square error (RMSE) 6.2). Estimation of lichen cover based on airborne data, on the other hand, was fairly good (r2 0.77, RMSE 11.7), but depended on the choice of spectral bands. When the hyperspectral data were resampled to the spectral resolution of Sentinel-2, slightly weaker results were obtained. Tree canopy cover near the flight plots was weakly related to the difference between estimated and measured lichen cover. The results also implied that the presence of dwarf shrubs could influence the lichen cover estimates.Peer reviewe

A spectral analysis of stem bark for boreal and temperate tree species

| openaire: EC/H2020/771049/EU//FREEDLES Funding Information: The study was partly funded by Academy of Finland (grant: DIMEBO 323004). This study has also received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No 771049). The text reflects only the authors’ view and the Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains. Publisher Copyright: © 2022 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.The woody material of forest canopies has a significant effect on the total forest reflectance and on the interpretation of remotely sensed data, yet research on the spectral properties of bark has been limited. We developed a novel measurement setup for acquiring stem bark reflectance spectra in field conditions, using a mobile hyperspectral camera. The setup was used for stem bark reflectance measurements of ten boreal and temperate tree species in the visible (VIS) to near-infrared (NIR) (400–1000 nm) wavelength region. Twenty trees of each species were measured, constituting a total of 200 hyperspectral reflectance images. The mean bark spectra of species were similar in the VIS region, and the interspecific variation was largest in the NIR region. The intraspecific variation of bark spectra was high for all studied species from the VIS to the NIR region. The spectral similarity of our study species did not correspond to the general phylogenetic lineages. The hyperspectral reflectance images revealed thatthe distributions of per-pixel reflectance values within images were species-specific. The spectral library collected in this study contributes toward building a comprehensive understanding of the spectral diversity of forests needed not only in remote sensing applications but also in, for example, biodiversity or land surface modeling studies.Peer reviewe