2,175 research outputs found
On Modern Science, Human Cognition, and Cultural Diversity
The development of modern science has depended strongly on specific features of the cultures involved; however, its results are widely and trans-culturally accepted and applied. The science and technology of electricity provides a particularly interesting example. It emerged as a specific product of post-Renaissance Europe, rooted in the Greek philosophical tradition that encourages explanations of nature in theoretical terms. It did not evolve in China presumably because such encouragement was missing. The trans-cultural acceptance of modern science and technology is postulated to be due, in part, to the common biological dispositions underlying human cognition, with generalizable capabilities of abstract, symbolic and strategic thought. These faculties of the human mind are main prerequisites for dynamic cultural development and differentiation. They appear to have evolved up to a stage of hunters and gatherers perhaps some 100 000 years ago. However, the extent of the correspondence between some constructions of the human mind and the order of nature, as revealed by science, is a late insight of the last centuries. Quantum physics and relativity are particularly impressive examples
Networks of Gene Regulation, Neural Development and the Evolution of General Capabilities, Such as Human Empathy
A network of gene regulation organized in a hierarchical and combinatorial manner is crucially involved in the development of the neural network, and has to be considered one of the main substrates of genetic change in its evolution. Though qualitative features may emerge by way of the accumulation of rather unspecific quantitative changes, it is reasonable to assume that at least in some cases specific combinations of regulatory parts of the genome initiated new directions of evolution, leading to novel capabilities of the brain. These notions are applied, in this paper, to the evolution of the capability of cognition-based human empaÂthy. It is suggested that it has evolved as a secondary effect of the evolution of strategic thought. Development of strategies depends on abstract representations of oneâs own posÂsible future states in oneâs own brain to allow assessment of their emotional desirability, but also on the representation and emotional evaluation of possible states of others, allowing anticipation of their behaviour. This is best achieved if representations of others are conÂnected to oneâs own emotional centres in a manner similar to self-representations. For this reason, the evolution of the human brain is assumed to have established representations with such linkages. No group selection is involved, because the quality of strategic thought affects the fitness of the individual. A secondary effect of this linkage is that both the actual states and the future perspectives of others elicit vicarious emotions, which may contribute to the motivations of altruistic behaviour
Socioeconomic Inequalities: Effects of Self-Enhancement, Depletion and Redistribution
Socioeconomic inequalities are functions not only of intrinsic differences between persons or groups, but also of the dynamics of their interactions. Inequalities can arise and become stabilized if there are advantages (such as generalized wealth including âhuman capitalâ) which are self-enhancing, whereas depletion of limiting resources is widely distributed. A recent theory of biological pattern formation has been generalized, adapted and applied to deal with this process. Applications include models for the non-Gaussian distribution of personal income and wealth, for overall economic growth in relation to inequalities and for effects of uncoupling strategies between developing and developed countries. Note added after publication: The equations (14) for the model of the income distribution, with its characteristic non-Gaussian extension towards higher incomes (fig.4), are closely related to the Fokker-Planck equation that is widely applied in many fields of physics
Functional analysis of the MERS-coronavirus spike protein
Zehn Jahre nach dem Ausbruch des Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, SARS-CoV, ist ein neues Betacoronavirus, das Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, MERS-CoV, auf der arabischen Halbinsel entdeckt worden. Seine anhaltende Ausbreitung stellt eine Bedrohung fĂŒr die öffentliche Gesundheit dar. Das Spike (S) Protein der Coronaviren vermittelt den viralen Eintritt in Wirtszellen und bestimmt wesentlich den viralen Tropismus und die virale Pathogenese. Das VerstĂ€ndnis der Determinanten des MERS-CoV Spike (MERS-S)-vermittelnden Eintritts in Zellen könnte daher wichtige Einblicke in die MERS-CoV-Biologie liefern und war somit das erste Ziel dieser Arbeit. Um den Eintritt in die Zelle zu ermöglichen, muss das Coronavirus S-Protein durch Wirtszellproteasen aktiviert werden, welche potentielle Ziele fĂŒr die therapeutischen Intervention darstellen. Daher sollten im zweiten Ziel dieser Arbeit Proteasen identifiziert werden, die MERS-S aktivieren. Das S-Protein ist das Hauptangriffsziel neutralisierender Antikörper und experimentelle Systeme zur S-Analyse können fĂŒr die Diagnostik eingesetzt werden. Das letzte Ziel dieser Arbeit war es daher, die MERS-CoV SeroprĂ€valenz in Saudi Arabien zu ermitteln. Es wurde ein lentivirales Vektorensystem etabliert, welches die Analyse des MERS-S-getriebenen Zelleintritts ermöglicht. Mit Hilfe dieses Systems konnte gezeigt werden, dass MERS-S den Eintritt in ein breites Spektrum humaner Zelllinien, wie Lungen-, Nieren- und Darmzellen vermittelt, was mit der klinischen Manifestation von MERS einhergeht. Der Wirtszelleintritt war unabhĂ€ngig von bereits beschriebenen Coronavirus Eintrittsrezeptoren, wurde jedoch durch die endosomale Cysteinprotease Cathepsin L und die Transmembranserinprotease TMPRSS2 gefördert. Im Gegensatz dazu war die AktivitĂ€t von Proprotein Konvertasen fĂŒr den S-Protein-vermittelnden Eintritt entbehrlich. SchlieĂlich zeigten Neutralisationstests, dass Seren von Patienten aus der östlichen Provinz Saudi Arabiens, die zwischen 2010-2011 und 2012 entnommen wurden, keine MERS-S-neutralisierenden Antikörper enthielten. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass MERS-CoV-Infektionen vor dem Ausbruch 2012 nur selten vorkamen. Die gewonnen Ergebnisse tragen wesentlich zum VerstĂ€ndnis des MERS-CoV-Eintritts in Zellen bei und liefern wichtige Informationen zur MERS-CoV-Epidemiologie. Weiterhin könnte die Beobachtung, dass der Protease-Inhibitor Camostat, der fĂŒr den Einsatz im Menschen zugelassen ist (in Japan), TMPRSS2 blockiert und damit den MERS-CoV Eintritt inhibiert, helfen, Behandlungsstrategien fĂŒr MERS-Patienten zu etablieren
Generation of Biological Patterns and Form: Some Physical, Mathematical and Logical Aspects
While many different mechanisms contribute to the generation of spatial order in biological development, the formation of morphogenetic fields which in turn direct cell responses giving rise to pattern and form are of major importance and essential for embryogenesis and regeneration. Most likely the fields represent concentration patterns of substances produced by molecular kinetics. Short range autocatalytic activation in conjunction with longer range âlateralâ inhibition or depletion effects is capable of generating such patterns (Gierer and Meinhardt, 1972). Non-linear reactions are required, and mathematical criteria were derived to design molecular models capable of pattern generation. The classical embryological feature of proportion regulation can be incorporated into the models. The conditions are mathematically necessary for the simplest two-factor case, and are likely to be a fair approximation in multi-component systems in which activation and inhibition are systems parameters subsuming the action of several agents. Gradients, symmetric and periodic patterns, in one or two dimensions, stable or pulsing in time, can be generated on this basis. Our basic concept of autocatalysis in conjunction with lateral inhibition accounts for self-regulatory biological features, including the reproducible formation of structures from near-uniform initial conditions as required by the logic of the generation cycle.
Real tissue form, for instance that of budding Hydra, may often be traced back to local curvature arising within an initially relatively flat cell sheet, the position of evagination being determined by morphogenetic fields. Shell theory developed for architecture may also be applied to such biological processes
The Physical Foundations of Biology and the Problem of Psychophysics
Full applicability of physics to human biology does not necessarily imply that one can uncover a comprehensive, algorithmic correlation between physical brain states and corresponding mental states. The argument takes into account that information processing is finite in principle in a finite world. Presumbly the brain-mind-relation cannot be resolved in all essential aspects, particularly when high degrees of abstraction or self-analytical processes are involved. Our conjecture plausibly unifies the universal validity of physics and a logical limitation of human thought, and it does not regard consciousness -the most basic human experience - as a marginal phenomenon
The Hydra model - a model for what?
The introductory personal remarks refer to my motivations for choosing research projects, and for moving from physics to molecular biology and then to development, with Hydra as a model system. Historically, Trembleyâs discovery of Hydra regeneration in 1744 was the beginÂŹning of developmental biology as we understand it, with passionate debates about preformation versus de novo generation, mechanisms versus organisms. In fact, seemingly conflicting bottom-up and top-down concepts are both required in combination to understand development. In modern terms, this means analysing the molecules involved, as well as searching for physical principles underlying development within systems of molecules, cells and tissues. During the last decade, molecular biology has provided surprising and impressive evidence that the same types of molÂŹecules and molecular systems are involved in pattern formation in a wide range of organisms, including coelenterates like Hydra, and thus appear to have been âinventedâ early in evolution. Likewise, the features of certain systems, especially those of developmental regulation, are found in many different organisms. This includes the generation of spatial structures by the interplay of self-enhancing activation and âlateralâ inhibitory effects of wider range, which is a main topic of my essay. Hydra regeneration is a particularly clear model for the formation of defined patterns within initially near-uniform tissues. In conclusion, this essay emphasizes the analysis of development in terms of physical laws, including the application of mathematics, and insists that Hydra was, and will continue to be, a rewarding model for understanding general features of embryogenesis and regeneration
Eriugena and alKindi, 9th Century Protagonists of pro-Scientific Cultural Change
Ancient Greek philosophers were the first to postulate the possibility of explaining nature in theoretical terms and to initiate attempts at this. With the rise of monotheistic religions of revelation claiming supremacy over human reason and envisaging a new world to come, studies of the natural order of the transient world were widely considered undesirable. Later, in the Middle Ages, the desire for human understanding of nature in terms of reason was revived. This article is concerned with the fundamental reversal of attitudes, from âundesirableâ to âdesirableâ, that eventually led into the foundations of modern science. One of the earliest, most ingenious and most interesting personalities involved was Eriugena, a theologian at the Court of Charles the Bald in the 9th century. Though understanding what we call nature is only one of the several aspects of his theological work, his line of thought implies a turn into a pro-scientific direction: the natural order is to be understood in abstract terms of âprimordial causesâ; understanding nature is considered to be the will of God; man encompasses the whole of creation in a physical as well as a mental sense. Basically similar ideas on the reconciliation of scientific rationality and monotheistic religions of revelation were conceived, independently and nearly simultaneously, by the Arab philosopher al-Kindi in Bagdad. Eriugena was more outspoken in his claim that reason is superior to authority. This claim is implicit in the thought of Nicholas of Cusa with his emphasis on human mental creativity as the image of Godâs creativity; and it is the keynote of Galileoâs âLetter to the Grand Duchess Christinaâ some 800 years later, the manifesto expressing basic attitudes of modern science. -/- This article in English is based on the monography (in German): A. Gierer âEriugena, al-Kindi, Nikolaus von Kues - Protagonisten einer wissenschaftsfreundlichen Wende im philosophischen und theologischen Denkenâ, Acta Historica Leopoldina 29 (1999), Barth Verlag in MVH Verlage Heidelberg, ISBN: 3-335-00652-6, which is also available online on this server. -/-
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Human brain evolution, theories of innovation, and lessons from the history of technology
Biological evolution and technological innovation, while differing in many respects, also share common features. In particular, implementation of a new technology in the market is analogous to the spreading of a new genetic trait in a population. Technological innovation may occur either through the accumulation of quantitative changes, as in the development of the ocean clipper, or it may be initiated by a new combination of features or subsystems, as in the case of steamships. Other examples of the latter type are electric networks that combine the generation, distribution, and use of electricity, and containerized transportation that combines standardized containers, logistics, and ships. Biological evolution proceeds, phenotypically, in many small steps, but at the genetic level novel features may arise not only through the accumulation of many small, common mutational changes, but also when distinct, relatively rare genetic changes are followed by many further mutations. In particular, capabilities of biologically modern man may have been initiated, perhaps some 150 000 years ago, by one or few accidental but distinct combinations of modules and subroutines of gene regulation which are involved in the generation of the neural network in the cerebral cortex. It is even conceivable that it was one primary genetic event that initiated the evolution of biologically modern man, introducing some novel but subtle feature of connectivity into the cerebral cortex which allowed for meta-levels of abstraction and upgraded modes of information processing. This may have set the stage for the evolution of integrated but diverse higher capabilities such as structured language, symbolic thought, strategic thought, and cognition based empathy
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