Alterations in skeletal muscle with disuse atrophy

Progress is reported in the following areas: (1) microgel electrophoresis identification of single fibers; (2) skinned fiber preparation; and (3) microbiochemical techniques for assaying important enzymes and substrates in single fibers

Effects of Low Cell pH and Elevated Inorganic Phosphate on the pCa-Force Relationship in Single Muscle Fibers at Near-Physiological Temperatures

Intense muscle contraction induces high rates of ATP hydrolysis with resulting increases in Pi, H+, and ADP, factors thought to induce fatigue by interfering with steps in the cross-bridge cycle. Force inhibition is less at physiological temperatures; thus the role of low pH in fatigue has been questioned. Effects of pH 6.2 and collective effects with 30 mM Pi on the pCa-force relationship were assessed in skinned fast and slow rat skeletal muscle fibers at 15 and 30°C. At 30°C, pH 6.2 + 30 mM Pi significantly depressed peak force in all fiber types, with the greatest effect in type IIx fibers. Across fiber types, Ca2+ sensitivity was depressed by low pH and low pH + high Pi, with the greater effect at 30°C. For type IIx fibers at 30°C, half-maximal activation (pCa50) was 5.36 at pH 6.2 (no added Pi) and 4.98 at pH 6.2 + 30 mM Pi compared with 6.58 in the control condition (pH 7, no added Pi). At 30°C, n2, reflective of thick filament cooperativity, was unchanged by low cell pH but was depressed from 5.02 to 2.46 in type IIx fibers with pH 6.2 + 30 mM Pi. With acidosis, activation thresholds of all fiber types required higher free Ca2+ at 15 and 30°C. With the exception of type IIx fibers, the Ca2+ required to reach activation threshold increased further with added Pi. In conclusion, it is clear that fatigue-inducing effects of low cell pH and elevated Pi at near-physiological temperatures are substantial

Functional and Structural Adaptations of Skeletal Muscle to Microgravity

Our purpose is to summarize the major effects of space travel on skeletal muscle with particular emphasis on factors that alter function. The primary deleterious changes are muscle atrophy and the associated decline in peak force and power. Studies on both rats and humans demonstrate a rapid loss of cell mass with microgravity. In rats, a reduction in muscle mass of up to 37% was observed within 1 week. For both species, the antigravity soleus muscle showed greater atrophy than the fast-twitch gastrocnemius. However, in the rat, the slow type I fibers atrophied more than the fast type II fibers, while in humans, the fast type II fibers were at least as susceptible to space-induced atrophy as the slow fiber type. Space flight also resulted in a significant decline in peak force. For example, the maximal voluntary contraction of the human plantar flexor muscles declined by 20–48% following 6 months in space, while a 21 % decline in the peak force of the soleus type I fibers was observed after a 17-day shuttle flight. The reduced force can be attributed both to muscle atrophy and to a selective loss of contractile protein. The former was the primary cause because, when force was expressed per cross-sectional area (kNm-2), the human fast type II and slow type I fibers of the soleus showed no change and a 4% decrease in force, respectively. Microgravity has been shown to increase the shortening velocity of the plantar flexors. This increase can be attributed both to an elevated maximal shortening velocity (V0) of the individual slow and fast fibers and to an increased expression of fibers containing fast myosin. Although the cause of the former is unknown, it might result from the selective loss of the thin filament actin and an associated decline in the internal drag during cross-bridge cycling. Despite the increase in fiber V0, peak power of the slow type I fiber was reduced following space flight. The decreased power was a direct result of the reduced force caused by the fiber atrophy. In addition to fiber atrophy and the loss of force and power, weightlessness reduces the ability of the slow soleus to oxidize fats and increases the utilization of muscle glycogen, at least in rats. This substrate change leads to an increased rate of fatigue. Finally, with return to the 1 g environment of earth, rat studies have shown an increased occurrence of eccentric contraction-induced fiber damage. The damage occurs with re-loading and not in-flight, but the etiology has not been established

The Roc and the Hard Place: The Empirical Effects of Economic Development Projects on Property Value, and the Reurbanization of Rochester, NY

Using quantitative analysis techniques in GIS and SPSS this piece analyzes property assessment data from Rochester, NY dating back to 1990. These values are compared to the City\u27s economic development project sites, and cluster and regression analyses were conducted to measure the effect of proximity. The evaluations held mixed results, and further study is required to prove that proximity to a project site has a positive influence on property values. Nonetheless, the study shows some evidence to support this hypothesis and notes important geographical phenomena

The Mediating Effect of Color-blind Racial Ideology on the Relationship Between Multicultural Counseling Competence And Empathy

Multicultural counseling competence is the extent to which a therapist can effectively work with clients from cultural groups which differ from their own, and is expressed through skills, knowledge, and awareness (Sue, 1998; Sue, Bernier, Durran, Feinberg, Pedersen, Smith, & Vasquez-Nuttall, 1982; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). Color-blind racial ideology is the belief that either emphasizes sameness among all individuals, known as color-evasion color-blind racial attitudes, or emphasizes that all individuals have the same opportunity for success, known as power-evasion colorblind racial attitudes (Carr, 1997; Neville, Lilly, Duran, Lee, & Browne, 2000; Neville, Awad, Brooks, Flores, & Bluemel, 2013). A significant positive relationship has been found between therapist multicultural counseling competence and color-blind racial attitudes (Johnson & Williams, 2015). Additionally, lower levels of multicultural counseling competence are predictive of poorer ratings of empathy, while higher levels of color-blind racial attitudes are predictive of poorer ratings of empathy (e.g., Burkard & Knox, 2004; Fuertes & Brobst, 2002). This study examined if therapist color-blind racial attitudes mediate the relationship between therapist-reported multicultural counseling competence and therapist-rated empathy. Participants were licensed practitioners and masters and doctoral-level trainees under supervision. Participants completed a measure assessing v multicultural counseling competence, two measures assessing color-blind racial attitudes, and a measure assessing ratings of empathy. Results found partial mediation of colorevasion color-blindness on the relationship between multicultural awareness and empathy expressed toward an African-American male client. There was no mediated effect when respondents rated their general empathy. Results and future directions are also discussed

Effect of Hindlimb Unweighting on Single Soleus Fiber Maximal Shortening Velocity and ATPase Activity

This study characterizes the time course of change in single soleus muscle fiber size and function elicited by hindlimb un weighting (HU) and analyzes the extent to which varying durations of HU altered maximal velocity of shortening (V(sub o)), myofibrillar adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase), and relative content of slow and fast myosin in individual soleus fibers. After 1, 2, or 3 weeks of HU, soleus muscle bundles were prepared and stored in skinning solution at -20 C. Single fibers were isolated and mounted between a motor arm and a transducer, and fiber force, V(sub o), and ATPase activity were measured. Fiber myosin content was determined by one-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate- (SDS) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. After 1, 2, and 3 weeks of HU, soleus fibers exhibited a progressive reduction in fiber diameter (16, 22, and 42%, respectively) and peak force (42, 48, and 7%, respectively). Peak specific tension was significantly reduced after 1 week of HU (18%) and showed no further change in 2-3 weeks of HU. During 1 and 3 wk of HU, fiber V(sub o) and ATPase showed a significant increase. By 3 week, V(sub o) had increased from 1.32 +/- 0.04 to 2.94 +/- 0.17 fiber lengths/s and fiber ATPase from 291 +/- 16 to 1064 +/- 128 micro-M min(sub -1) mm(sub -3). The percent fibers expressing fast myosin heavy chain increased from 4% to 29% by 3 week of HU, and V(sub o) and ATPase activity within a fiber were highly correlated. However, a large population of fibers after 1, 2, and 3 weeks of HU showed increases in V(sub o) and ATPase but displayed the same myosin protein profile on SDS gels as control fibers. The mechanism eliciting increased fiber V(sub o) and ATPase activity was not obvious but may have been due to increases in fast myosin that went undetected on SDS gels and/or other factors unrelated to the myosin filament

Weekly Versus Monthly Testosterone Administration On Fast and Slow Skeletal Muscle Fibers in Older Adult Males

Context: In older adults, loss of mobility due to sarcopenia is exacerbated in men with low serum T. T replacement therapy is known to increase muscle mass and strength, but the effect of weekly (WK) vs monthly (MO) administration on specific fiber types is unknown. Objective: To determine the efficacy of WK vs MO T replacement on the size and functional capacity of individual fast and slow skeletal muscle fiber types. Design, Setting, and Patients: Subjects were randomized into a 5-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. All subjects (ages, 61–71 y) were community-dwelling men who had T levels \u3c 500 ng/dL. Intervention: Subjects were dosed weekly for 5 months, receiving continuous T (WK, n = 5; 100 mg T enanthate, im injection), monthly cycled T (MO, n = 7; alternating months of T and placebo), or placebo (n = 7). Muscle biopsies of the vastus lateralis were obtained before and after treatment. Main Outcome Measures: Main outcomes for individual slow and fast fibers included fiber diameter, peak force (P0), rate of tension development, maximal shortening velocity, peak power, and Ca2+ sensitivity. Results: Both treatments increased fiber diameter and peak power, with WK treatment 5-fold more effective than MO in increasing type I fiber P0. WK effects on fiber diameter and force were 1.5-fold higher in slow fibers compared to fast fibers. In fast type II fibers, diameter and P0 increased similarly between treatments. The increased power was entirely due to increased fiber size and force. Conclusions: In conclusion, T replacement effects were fiber-type dependent, restricted to increases in cell size, P0, and peak power, and dependent on the paradigm selected (WK vs MO)

Force-Velocity and Power Characteristics of Rat Soleus Muscle Fibers after Hindlimb Suspension

The effects of 1, 2, and 3 wk of Hindlimb Suspension (HS) on force-velocity and power characteristics of single rat soleus fibers were determined. After 1, 2, or 3 wk of HS, small fiber bundles were isolated, placed in skinning solution, and stored at -20 C until studied. Single fibers were isolated and placed between a motor arm and force transducer, functional properties were studied, and fiber protein content was subsequently analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Additional fibers were isolated from soleus of control and after 1 and 3 wk of HS, and fiber type distribution and myosin light chain stoichiometry were determined from SDS-PAGE analysis. After 1 wk of HS, percent type I fibers declined from 82 to 74%, whereas hybrid fibers increased from 10 to 18%. Percent fast type 11 fibers increased from 8% in control and 1 wk of HS to 26% by 3 wk of HS. Most fibers showed an increased unloaded maximal shortening velocity (V(sub 0)), but myosin heavy chain remained entirely slow type I. The mechanism for increased V(sub 0) is unknown. There was a progressive decrease in fiber diameter (14, 30, and 38%) and peak force (38, 56, and 63%) after 1, 2, and 3 wk of HS, respectively. One week of HS resulted in a shift of the force-velocity curve, and between 2 and 3 wk of HS the curve shifted further such that V(sub 0) was higher than control at all relative loads less than 45% peak isometric force. Peak absolute power output of soleus fibers progressively decreased through 2 wk of HS but showed no further change at 3 wk. The results suggest that between 2 and 3 wk the HS-induced alterations in the force-velocity relationship act to maintain the power output of single soleus fibers despite a continued reduction in fiber force

Effect of Hindlimb Unweighting on Tissue Blood Flow in the Rat

The purpose of this study was to characterize the distribution of blood flow in the rat during hindlimb unweighting (HU) and post-HU standing and exercise and examine whether the previously reported elevation in anaerobic metabolism observed with contractile activity in the atrophied soleus muscle was caused by a reduced hindlimb blood flow. After either 15 days of HU or cage control, blood flow was measured with radioactive microspheres during unweighting, normal standing, and running on a treadmill (15 m/min). In another group of control and experimental animals, blood flow was measured during preexercise (PE) treadmill standing and treadmill running (15 m/min). Soleus muscle blood flow was not different between groups during unweighting, PE standing, and running at 15 m/min. Chronic unweighting resulted in the tendency for greater blood flow to muscles composed of predominantly fast-twitch glycolytic fibers. With exercise, blood flow to visceral organs was reduced compared with PE values in the control rats, whereas flow to visceral organs in 15-day HU animals was unaltered by exercise. These higher flows to the viscera and to muscles composed of predominantly fast-twitch glycolytic fibers suggest an apparent reduction in the ability of the sympathetic nervous system to distribute cardiac output after chronic HU. In conclusion, because 15 days of HU did not affect blood flow to the soleus during exercise, the increased dependence of the atrophied soleus on anerobic energy production during contractile activity cannot be explained by a reduced muscle blood flow

Assembly and use of new task rules in fronto-parietal cortex

Severe capacity limits, closely associated with fluid intelligence, arise in learning and use of new task rules. We used fMRI to investigate these limits in a series of multirule tasks involving different stimuli, rules, and response keys. Data were analyzed both during presentation of instructions and during later task execution. Between tasks, we manipulated the number of rules specified in task instructions, and within tasks, we manipulated the number of rules operative in each trial block. Replicating previous results, rule failures were strongly predicted by fluid intelligence and increased with the number of operative rules. In fMRI data, analyses of the instruction period showed that the bilateral inferior frontal sulcus, intraparietal sulcus, and presupplementary motor area were phasically active with presentation of each new rule. In a broader range of frontal and parietal regions, baseline activity gradually increased as successive rules were instructed. During task performance, we observed contrasting fronto-parietal patterns of sustained (block-related) and transient (trial-related) activity. Block, but not trial, activity showed effects of task complexity. We suggest that, as a new task is learned, a fronto-parietal representation of relevant rules and facts is assembled for future control of behavior. Capacity limits in learning and executing new rules, and their association with fluid intelligence, may be mediated by this load-sensitive fronto-parietal network