263 research outputs found
Inefficient star formation through turbulence, magnetic fields and feedback
Star formation is inefficient. Only a few percent of the available gas in
molecular clouds forms stars, leading to the observed low star formation rate
(SFR). The same holds when averaged over many molecular clouds, such that the
SFR of whole galaxies is again surprisingly low. Indeed, considering the low
temperatures, molecular clouds should be highly gravitationally unstable and
collapse on their global mean freefall timescale. And yet, they are observed to
live about 10-100 times longer, i.e., the SFR per freefall time (SFR_ff) is
only a few percent. Thus, other physical mechanisms must counteract the quick
global collapse. Turbulence, magnetic fields and stellar feedback have been
proposed as regulating agents, but it is still unclear which of these processes
is the most important and what their relative contributions are. Here we run
high-resolution simulations including gravity, turbulence, magnetic fields, and
jet/outflow feedback. We confirm that clouds collapse on a mean freefall time,
if only gravity is considered, producing stars at an unrealistic rate. In
contrast, if turbulence, magnetic fields, and feedback are included
step-by-step, the SFR is reduced by a factor of 2-3 with each additional
physical ingredient. When they all act in concert, we find a constant SFR_ff =
0.04, currently the closest match to observations, but still about a factor of
2-4 higher than the average. A detailed comparison with other simulations and
with observations leads us to conclude that only models with turbulence
producing large virial parameters, and including magnetic fields and feedback
can produce realistic SFRs.Comment: 9 pages, 3 figures, MNRAS, in press, movies available:
http://www.mso.anu.edu.au/~chfeder/pubs/ineff_sf/ineff_sf.html, see also
astrobite article:
http://astrobites.org/2015/04/28/why-is-star-formation-so-inefficient
The origin of physical variations in the star formation law
Observations of external galaxies and of local star-forming clouds in the
Milky Way have suggested a variety of star formation laws, i.e., simple direct
relations between the column density of star formation (Sigma_SFR: the amount
of gas forming stars per unit area and time) and the column density of
available gas (Sigma_gas). Extending previous studies, we show that these
different, sometimes contradictory relations for Milky Way clouds, nearby
galaxies, and high-redshift discs and starbursts can be combined in one
universal star formation law in which Sigma_SFR is about 1% of the local gas
collapse rate, Sigma_gas/t_ff, but a significant scatter remains in this
relation. Using computer simulations and theoretical models, we find that the
observed scatter may be primarily controlled by physical variations in the Mach
number of the turbulence and by differences in the star formation efficiency.
Secondary variations can be induced by changes in the virial parameter,
turbulent driving and magnetic field. The predictions of our models are
testable with observations that constrain both the Mach number and the star
formation efficiency in Milky Way clouds, external disc and starburst galaxies
at low and high redshift. We also find that reduced telescope resolution does
not strongly affect such measurements when Sigma_SFR is plotted against
Sigma_gas/t_ff.Comment: Published December 21, 2013 in MNRAS 436 (4): 3167-317
The density structure and star formation rate of non-isothermal polytropic turbulence
The interstellar medium of galaxies is governed by supersonic turbulence,
which likely controls the star formation rate (SFR) and the initial mass
function (IMF). Interstellar turbulence is non-universal, with a wide range of
Mach numbers, magnetic fields strengths, and driving mechanisms. Although some
of these parameters were explored, most previous works assumed that the gas is
isothermal. However, we know that cold molecular clouds form out of the warm
atomic medium, with the gas passing through chemical and thermodynamic phases
that are not isothermal. Here we determine the role of temperature variations
by modelling non-isothermal turbulence with a polytropic equation of state
(EOS), where pressure and temperature are functions of gas density,
P~rho^Gamma, T~rho^(Gamma-1). We use grid resolutions of 2048^3 cells and
compare polytropic exponents Gamma=0.7 (soft EOS), Gamma=1 (isothermal EOS),
and Gamma=5/3 (stiff EOS). We find a complex network of non-isothermal
filaments with more small-scale fragmentation occurring for Gamma<1, while
Gamma>1 smoothes out density contrasts. The density probability distribution
function (PDF) is significantly affected by temperature variations, with a
power-law tail developing at low densities for Gamma>1. In contrast, the PDF
becomes closer to a lognormal distribution for Gamma<=1. We derive and test a
new density variance - Mach number relation that takes Gamma into account. This
new relation is relevant for theoretical models of the SFR and IMF, because it
determines the dense gas mass fraction of a cloud, from which stars form. We
derive the SFR as a function of Gamma and find that it decreases by a factor of
~5 from Gamma=0.7 to Gamma=5/3.Comment: 18 pages, 10 figures, MNRAS accepted, simulation movies at
http://www.mso.anu.edu.au/~chfeder/pubs/polytropic/polytropic.htm
The role of turbulence during the formation of circumbinary discs
Most stars form in binaries and the evolution of their discs remains poorly
understood. To shed light on this subject, we carry out 3D ideal MHD
simulations with the AMR code FLASH of binary star formation for separations of
. We run a simulation with no initial turbulence (NT), and
two with turbulent Mach numbers of and
(T1 and T2) for after protostar formation. By the end of
the simulations the circumbinary discs in NT and T1, if any, have radii of
with masses , while
T2 hosts a circumbinary disc with radius and mass
. These circumbinary discs formed from the
disruption of circumstellar discs and harden the binary orbit. Our simulated
binaries launch large single outflows. We find that NT drives the most massive
outflows, and also removes large quantities of linear and angular momentum. T2
produces the least efficient outflows concerning mass, momentum and angular
momentum (61 per cent, 71 per cent, 68 per cent of the
respective quantities in NT). We conclude that while turbulence helps to build
circumbinary discs which organise magnetic fields for efficient outflow
launching, too much turbulence may also disrupt the ordered magnetic field
structure required for magneto-centrifugal launching of jets and outflows. We
also see evidence for episodic accretion during the binary star evolution. We
conclude that the role of turbulence in building large circumbinary discs may
explain some observed very old () circumbinary discs. The
longer lifetime of circumbinary discs may increase the likelihood of planet
formation.Comment: Accepted to MNRAS. 17 pages, 11 figures. arXiv admin note: text
overlap with arXiv:1705.0815
The Star Formation Rate of Turbulent Magnetized Clouds: Comparing Theory, Simulations, and Observations
We derive and compare six theoretical models for the star formation rate
(SFR) - the Krumholz & McKee (KM), Padoan & Nordlund (PN), and Hennebelle &
Chabrier (HC) models, and three multi-freefall versions of these, suggested by
HC - all based on integrals over the log-normal distribution of turbulent gas.
We extend all theories to include magnetic fields, and show that the SFR
depends on four basic parameters: (1) virial parameter alpha_vir; (2) sonic
Mach number M; (3) turbulent forcing parameter b, which is a measure for the
fraction of energy driven in compressive modes; and (4) plasma beta=2(M_A/M)^2
with the Alfven Mach number M_A. We compare all six theories with MHD
simulations, covering cloud masses of 300 to 4x10^6 solar masses and Mach
numbers M = 3 to 50 and M_A = 1 to infinity, with solenoidal (b=1/3), mixed
(b=0.4) and compressive turbulent (b=1) forcings. We find that the SFR
increases by a factor of four between M=5 and 50 for compressive forcing and
alpha_vir~1. Comparing forcing parameters, we see that the SFR is more than 10x
higher with compressive than solenoidal forcing for Mach 10 simulations. The
SFR and fragmentation are both reduced by a factor of two in strongly
magnetized, trans-Alfvenic turbulence compared to hydrodynamic turbulence. All
simulations are fit simultaneously by the multi-freefall KM and multi-freefall
PN theories within a factor of two over two orders of magnitude in SFR. The
simulated SFRs cover the range and correlation of SFR column density with gas
column density observed in Galactic clouds, and agree well for star formation
efficiencies SFE = 1% to 10% and local efficiencies epsilon = 0.3 to 0.7 due to
feedback. We conclude that the SFR is primarily controlled by interstellar
turbulence, with a secondary effect coming from magnetic fields.Comment: 34 pages, 12 figures, ApJ in press, movies at
http://www.ita.uni-heidelberg.de/~chfeder/pubs/sfr/sfr.shtm
On the Star Formation Efficiency of Turbulent Magnetized Clouds
We study the star formation efficiency (SFE) in simulations and observations
of turbulent, magnetized, molecular clouds. We find that the probability
density functions (PDFs) of the density and the column density in our
simulations with solenoidal, mixed, and compressive forcing of the turbulence,
sonic Mach numbers of 3-50, and magnetic fields in the super- to the
trans-Alfvenic regime, all develop power-law tails of flattening slope with
increasing SFE. The high-density tails of the PDFs are consistent with
equivalent radial density profiles, rho ~ r^(-kappa) with kappa ~ 1.5-2.5, in
agreement with observations. Studying velocity-size scalings, we find that all
the simulations are consistent with the observed v ~ l^(1/2) scaling of
supersonic turbulence, and seem to approach Kolmogorov turbulence with v ~
l^(1/3) below the sonic scale. The velocity-size scaling is, however, largely
independent of the SFE. In contrast, the density-size and column density-size
scalings are highly sensitive to star formation. We find that the power-law
slope alpha of the density power spectrum, P(rho,k) ~ k^alpha, or equivalently
the Delta-variance spectrum of column density, DV(Sigma,l) ~ l^(-alpha),
switches sign from alpha 0 when star formation
proceeds (SFE > 0). We provide a relation to compute the SFE from a measurement
of alpha. Studying the literature, we find values ranging from alpha = -1.6 to
+1.6 in observations covering scales from the large-scale atomic medium, over
cold molecular clouds, down to dense star-forming cores. From those alpha
values, we infer SFEs and find good agreement with independent measurements
based on young stellar object (YSO) counts, where available. Our SFE-alpha
relation provides an independent estimate of the SFE based on the column
density map of a cloud alone, without requiring a priori knowledge of
star-formation activity or YSO counts.Comment: 23 pages, 14 figures, ApJ in press, more info at
http://www.ita.uni-heidelberg.de/~chfeder/pubs/sfe/sfe.shtml?lang=e
Connection between dense gas mass fraction, turbulence driving, and star formation efficiency of molecular clouds
We examine the physical parameters that affect the accumulation of gas in
molecular clouds to high column densities where the formation of stars takes
place. In particular, we analyze the dense gas mass fraction (DGMF) in a set of
self-gravitating, isothermal, magnetohydrodynamic turbulence simulations
including sink particles to model star formation. We find that the simulations
predict close to exponential DGMFs over the column density range N(H2) = 3-25 x
10^{21} cm^{-2} that can be easily probed via, e.g., dust extinction
measurements. The exponential slopes correlate with the type of turbulence
driving and also with the star formation efficiency. They are almost
uncorrelated with the sonic Mach number and magnetic-field strength. The slopes
at early stages of cloud evolution are steeper than at the later stages. A
comparison of these predictions with observations shows that only simulations
with relatively non-compressive driving (b ~< 0.4) agree with the DGMFs of
nearby molecular clouds. Massive infrared dark clouds can show DGMFs that are
in agreement with more compressive driving. The DGMFs of molecular clouds can
be significantly affected by how compressive the turbulence is on average.
Variations in the level of compression can cause scatter to the DGMF slopes,
and some variation is indeed necessary to explain the spread of the observed
DGMF slopes. The observed DGMF slopes can also be affected by the clouds' star
formation activities and statistical cloud-to-cloud variations.Comment: 7 pages, 7 figures, accepted to A&A Letter
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