On-Site Sanitation and Its Effects on the Groundwater Resources of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale, Kenya

This paper has analyzed the effects of on-site sanitation systems on groundwater and the impact this has to public health in the human settlements and tourist establishments of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale areas –two, very important tourist destinations in the Kenya coast. The pit latrine and septic-tank/soakage pit are the two main systems used for containing human waste in the settlements. These two on-site sanitation systems constitute the main source of potential contamination to groundwater and its consequences in the two areas. Hence, the boreholes and wells in the two study areas were located on a map using a GPS to serve as the sampling points. Water from these sources was analyzed for nutrient and feacal contamination in the laboratory. The nutrient contamination was established through the levels of total ammonia, nitrates/nitrites, and phosphates. These were determined using calorimetric methods; while the 5-tube, 3- dilution, Most Probable Number (MPN) technique was used for the evaluation of the levels of total Coliforms and Escherichia Coli (E-coli) parameters. The study was designed with a strategy that captured the effects and impacts of the contaminants with the varying tourist seasons and rainfall pattern. Results of the study revealed that the level of nutrient and micro-bacteria contamination varied with location, distance, tourist seasons and rainfall pattern relative to the contaminating sources. Water sources located within the human settlements and beach hotels –and within short distances to the contaminating sources exhibited elevated levels of nutrients and micro-bacteria; water sources located down-stream the human settlements revealed even higher contamination levels, indicating more input of nutrients and micro-bacteria probably through underground flow and seepage into the water aquifers –likely through cracks in the coral rock formation characteristic of the two study areas. The results of the study lead to the conclusion that on-site sanitation systems, though sanctioned for human waste disposal, may not be suitable in areas dominated by coral geology basement, particularly so when stringent observance of regulations and standard required in the construction of the waste disposal systems are not adhered to. Out of the conclusion, it is recommended that a shift towards innovative approaches in human waste management need to be advanced and pursued as a matter of policy in environmental management. Keywords: On-site sanitation, water contamination, nutrients, micro-bacteria, Total coliform, E. coli

Dancing to the Tune of Opportunities –Human Settlements Aligned to Share the Jackpot of Kenya’s Coastal Tourism Benefits Spoil the Broth

This paper highlights how human settlements aligned themselves to share the benefits to arise from coastal tourism development in the Kenya coast, but have come to bedevil the industry through poor management of domestic waste. The study area comprised of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale, which are two important tourist destinations in the country. It attempted to establish population numbers in these habitations, the waste loads generated, and how it was managed. The study was accomplished through field visits, library research and application of the World Health Organization (WHO 1989) rapid assessment methods for land, air and water pollution. The relevant data for assessment was obtained from records of population census, bed nights, occupancy, and the waste disposal methods in use. The study revealed that human settlements aligned themselves in clusters inland, reflecting the clusters of the beach hotels dotting the shore line of the Indian Ocean. Large volumes of domestic waste were being generated in both the human settlements and in the hotels. Management of the waste in the settlements was largely on-site and mixed, through the use of both pit latrines and septic-tank/soakage pit systems in the human settlements, and only through septic-tank/soakage pits in the hotel establishments. None of the settlements had wastewater treatment facilities. Only 5 beach hotels had wastewater treatment plants. While the settlements positioned themselves to benefit from the tourism industry, tapping in business and employment opportunities, the arrangement has seemed to spoil the broth as the settlements came to be the main source domestic waste affecting environmental quality and undermining tourism growth and sustainability. Also, through the large number of visitors, during the peak tourist periods, the beach hotels themselves have come contribute to large waste generation. On-site sanitation, it is concluded, is not appropriate for managing domestic waste in coastal areas dependent on good quality environmental to flourish the tourism economic sector. Tourism thrives in areas where the environment is aesthetically appealing; domestic waste undermine. Consequently, it is recommended that innovative approaches are pursued for domestic waste management in order to flourish and sustain the industry. Keywords: Human waste, human settlements, tourism, on-site sanitation, contamination, aesthetic value, water quality, sustainability

On-Site Sanitation and Its Effects on the Recreational Waters of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale –Kenya

This paper presents the effect of on-site sanitation systems on the recreational waters of Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu and Diani-Chale tourist destinations along the Kenya Coast to establish the level of contamination in these lagoon waters frequented by tourists for swimming, diving and snorkeling. Water oozing out along the beaches near hotels or a clusters of hotels and that of lagoons in front of the beach hotels were sampled for laboratory examination to determine the levels of contamination by nutrients and micro-bacteria. Nitrites and E. coli –indicators of recent contamination by human wastes were of major interest. The sampling and analysis spanned the whole year to capture the four tourist seasons and the wet and dry periods of the year. The results of analysis established the in-effectiveness of the on-site sanitation systems in containing human waste. Topology and rock formation promoted transportation of contaminants downstream for measurable levels of nutrients and E.Coli to be detected in the lagoon waters. Nutrients and bacteria levels were higher in the lagoons in the wet periods than during dry weather. This was linked to of diffuse pollution from surface run-off, leachates from dumpsite, and discharges of contaminated water into the lagoons. Specifically for Diani-Chale, the levels of contamination were observed to be in sync with the peak tourist season, where the higher levels could be explained on account of the large number of people (tourist  plus  local people), which increased significantly as the number of local people increased to cash in on the opportunities the industry offered during this period only to decline to low contamination levels during the low-tourist season when the tourists return to their home countries and the local people move to their rural homes for farming activities. Variation of contaminant levels as a pattern due to migration of the people was not observed in the NBS study area on account the area being more urbanized, people depend on other sectors for their socio-economic activities. Overall, the contamination levels in the two study areas are generally still low. However, with increasing urbanization and investments in the tourism industry, the problem may grow to unacceptable levels and action needs to be taken to address it as an emerging problem. Keywords: Lagoon waters, on-water activities, on-site sanitation, human waste management, contamination, nutrients, micro-bacteria, E. col

Ethnic Mixing and Tolerance in Mathare Informal Settelment in Nairobi City, Kenya

In any multi-ethnic society, tolerance is regarded as an integral element for achieving social, economic, and political stability within the nation. Today, majority of the multi-ethnic nations in Africa struggle to promote ethno-cultural tolerance and acceptance among the diverse populations. Numerous African nations are embroiled in inter-state conflicts and civil wars stemming from ethnic differences, thereby presenting a dilemma regarding the promotion of ethnic pluralism. This paper focuses on examining whether ethnic mixing in the city can be a potential tool for promoting ethnic tolerance and peaceful co-existence. This can be further diffused to the rural regions and subsequently to the whole nation. The study adopted interpretive study design that utilized qualitative and quantitative methods in the collection and analysis of data. The initial survey involved interviews with 80 participants, while the in-depth interviews included 24 individuals. Participants were rural urban migrants who had lived in the city for more than five years and were at the time of study living in the Mathare informal settlement. Following the contact theory, the study found compelling evidence that exposure to different ethnic group promotes cultural learning and accommodation toward outgroups, resulting to individuals who are more open to diversity. The study proposes ethnic mixing and the creation of ethnic diverse spaces as an alternative strategy for promoting ethnic understanding and nationhood

Ethnic Mixing and Tolerance in Urban Kenya: A Case Study of Mathare Informal Settelment in Nairobi City

For any multi-ethnic society, tolerance is regarded as an integral element for social, economic, and political stability of the nation. Today, majority of the multi-ethnic nations in Africa still face the challenge on how to promote ethno-cultural tolerance and acceptance among the diverse populations. As a result, many African nations are entangled in inter-state conflicts and civil wars related to ethnic differences that pose a dilemma on whether to promote ethnic pluralism or not. In this study we examined whether ethnic mixing in the city can be a potential tool for promoting ethnic tolerance and peaceful co-existence, which can then be diffused to the rural regions and subsequently to the whole nation. The study adopted integrative study design that allowed use of mixed methods in the collection and analysis of data where eighty participants were interviewed in the initial survey and twenty-four in the in-depth interviews. Consistent with the contact theory the study found a compelling evidence that ethnic group exposure promotes cultural learning and out group accommodation, resulting to individuals who are more open to diversity. The study proposes ethnic mixing and the creation of ethnic diverse spaces as an alternative strategy for promoting ethnic understanding and nationhood. The paper is an excerpt from the author’s post-doctoral thesis on the role of rural-urban migrations in promoting ethnic integration in Kenya

Ethnic Mixing and Tolerance in Urban Kenya: A Case Study of Mathare Informal Settelment in Nairobi City

For any multi-ethnic society, tolerance is regarded as an integral element for social, economic, and political stability of the nation. Today, majority of the multi-ethnic nations in Africa still face the challenge on how to promote ethno-cultural tolerance and acceptance among the diverse populations. As a result, many African nations are entangled in inter-state conflicts and civil wars related to ethnic differences that pose a dilemma on whether to promote ethnic pluralism or not. In this study we examined whether ethnic mixing in the city can be a potential tool for promoting ethnic tolerance and peaceful co-existence, which can then be diffused to the rural regions and subsequently to the whole nation. The study adopted integrative study design that allowed use of mixed methods in the collection and analysis of data where eighty participants were interviewed in the initial survey and twenty-four in the in-depth interviews. Consistent with the contact theory the study found a compelling evidence that ethnic group exposure promotes cultural learning and out group accommodation, resulting to individuals who are more open to diversity. The study proposes ethnic mixing and the creation of ethnic diverse spaces as an alternative strategy for promoting ethnic understanding and nationhood. The paper is an excerpt from the author’s post-doctoral thesis on the role of rural-urban migrations in promoting ethnic integration in Kenya

Urbanization and Groundwater Pollution in Mombasa-Kenya: Do we have to Transfer the Problem due to Construction of the Dongo-Kundu By-Pass

We show how a bridge and good road network opened up the Mombasa County to rapid urbanization and growth of human settlements beyond the ability of Local Government to provide the infrastructure for human waste management, leading to pollution of groundwater aquifers and effects in public health. We caution that the same would happen in the Kwale County upon construction of the Dongo-Kundu By-Pass linking it to Mombasa. Up to 1979, the population distribution in the Mombasa County was restricted by difficulties of access, particularly at its potential district of Kisauni, which though offering plenty of land for housing development, was not overpopulated due to difficult to access. However, upon construction of the Nyali Bridge the early 1980s, the population dynamics shifted, making Kisauni the most populated area. It remains so and this population uses on-site sanitation systems for human waste management. This has had impact on groundwater aquifers through microbial pollution, rendering otherwise chemically suitable water unsuitable on this account without treatment. Construction of the Dongo-Kundu By-Pass to link Mombasa with the south coast will open the Kwale County to rapid urbanization, replicating the water pollution problem experienced in the Mombasa County, particularly in the locations found along its coastal belt. In this study technical measures, zoning and declaration of areas for conservation of groundwater aquifers have been proposed to forestall the problem in the newly to urbanize area. Key words: Ease of access, on-site sanitation, groundwater pollution, water borne diseases, effects on public healt

Impact of Global Warming on Rural-Urban Migration and Net Emigration in Forefront Sub-Saharan Countries

Global warming has recently raised a lot of concerns about the future of our planet in terms of inhabitability. These concerns focus particularly on the possible increase in the migration toward more hospitable urban areas within a country or toward more hospitable countries. However, to our knowledge, there is no quantitative study to assess the impact of global warming on migration in Sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, this paper attempts to determine whether global warming increases rural-urban migration and net emigration (i.e. emigration of nationals out of a country minus immigration of foreigners into the country) over the period 2000-2005 in six forefront Sub-Saharan countries, namely Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal. We found that global warming alone is insignificantly related to rural-urban migration and net emigration. However, when associated with other independent variables or cofactors such as population growth rate and gross domestic product growth rate, global warming increases both rural-urban migration and net emigration