Correlation (Pearson) of prefrontal glutamate level and “perspective taking” score

<p>Correlation (Pearson) of prefrontal glutamate level and “perspective taking” score</p

Post-traumatic stress disorder and beyond: an overview of rodent stress models.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder of high prevalence and major socioeconomic impact. Patients suffering from PTSD typically present intrusion and avoidance symptoms and alterations in arousal, mood and cognition that last for more than 1 month. Animal models are an indispensable tool to investigate underlying pathophysiological pathways and, in particular, the complex interplay of neuroendocrine, genetic and environmental factors that may be responsible for PTSD induction. Since the 1960s, numerous stress paradigms in rodents have been developed, based largely on Seligman's seminal formulation of 'learned helplessness' in canines. Rodent stress models make use of physiological or psychological stressors such as foot shock, underwater trauma, social defeat, early life stress or predator-based stress. Apart from the brief exposure to an acute stressor, chronic stress models combining a succession of different stressors for a period of several weeks have also been developed. Chronic stress models in rats and mice may elicit characteristic PTSD-like symptoms alongside, more broadly, depressive-like behaviours. In this review, the major existing rodent models of PTSD are reviewed in terms of validity, advantages and limitations; moreover, significant results and implications for future research-such as the role of FKBP5, a mediator of the glucocorticoid stress response and promising target for therapeutic interventions-are discussed

Computational model parameters: maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimates (bounded model-scale).

<p>Computational model parameters: maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimates (bounded model-scale).</p

Two-step decision task.

<p>(A) Trial structure. Each trial consisted of choices at two steps. Step 1 involved the first choice between two abstract gray stimuli (Chinese characters, not known to German subjects). The chosen stimulus was framed with red color in the center-top of the screen for 1.5s. Subsequently, subjects were presented with another stimulus pair in step 2. The second choice was rewarded with money (20 cents) or nothing. (<b>B</b>) The transitions from step 1 to step 2 remained fixed, with 70% and 30% of all trials as respectively common and rare transitions. The reward probabilities for each stimulus in step 2 changed independently between 25% and 75%, based on Gaussian random walks with reflecting boundaries [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0150165#pone.0150165.ref010" target="_blank">10</a>]. Win probabilities varied, therefore, as a function of the trial number.</p

Computational model parameter estimates.

<p>The model parameter <i>β</i>_<i>GD</i>, estimating the weight of the goal-directed systems to behavioral control, is displayed as a function of working memory capacity (Digit Span score) for the break conditions gaming (green points and regression lines) versus music (red).</p

Socio-demographic information and results from a neuropsychological battery for the 33 healthy subjects who participated in experiment.

<p>Socio-demographic information and results from a neuropsychological battery for the 33 healthy subjects who participated in experiment.</p

Multivariate classification of schizophrenia patients and healthy controls.

<p>Abbreviations: Hem, Hemisphere; L, left; Max, Maximum; Min, Minimum; R, right.</p><p>Accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of peak cluster maxima.</p><p>Multivariate classification of schizophrenia patients and healthy controls.</p

Comparison of univariate and multivariate classification performance for the ventral striatum.

<p>Using a ventral striatal mask with 182 voxels (90 and 92 voxels for left and right ventral striatum, respectively).</p><p>Abbreviations: L, left; Min, minimum; Max, maximum; R, right; STD, standard deviation.</p><p>*Parameter refers to the voxels within the ventral striatal mask.</p><p>Comparison of univariate and multivariate classification performance for the ventral striatum.</p

Brain areas that discriminated between schizophrenia patients and healthy control during reward anticipation using a multivariate classification approach.

<p>Accuracy scores (percent correct classification) from SVM searchlight decoding were colour-coded to display the classification performance. Letters x, y, z denote the axial, coronal and sagittal planes, respectively. The maps are thresholded at a significance level of p<0.05, FDR-corrected (cluster level 30 voxels).</p

Group differences in reward anticipation.

<p>Results for the contrast reward anticipation versus no outcome for healthy controls > schizophrenia patients (thresholded at p < 0.05, FDR-corrected for multiple comparisons, cluster level 30 voxels). Healthy controls displayed significant larger activations in the ventral striatum, hippocampus, caudate body and substantia nigra during reward-indicating versus neutral cues.</p