Beyond the Grant: How the W. K. Kellogg Foundation Went Beyond Grantmaking to Contribute to a Major Early Childhood Initiative

· The seven-year SPARK (Supporting Partnerships to Assure Ready Kids) initiative, created by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation (WKKF), aimed at systemically linking the pre-K and kindergarten worlds as a way to position vulnerable children for greater success in the early grades. · At the foundation, the initiative served as a departure point for WKKF to move from its traditional grantmaking role to a changemaker role. · To create change, a foundation must articulate – and commit to – a point of view about how change can occur. A theory of change can be a powerful tool to guide ongoing planning and action. · A foundation that intends to create change must be prepared to take responsibility for results and create the internal structures that promote accountability and collaboration. The nature of the SPARK effort called for abandoning the silos of portfolio management and developing a new collaborative approach. · Foundations must be prepared to advocate for change, and bring their visibility, credibility, knowledge, and convening power to it

Wind tunnel simulation of Martian sand storms

The physics and geological relationships of particles driven by the wind under near Martian conditions were examined in the Martian Surface Wind Tunnel. Emphasis was placed on aeolian activity as a planetary process. Threshold speeds, rates of erosion, trajectories of windblown particles, and flow fields over various landforms were among the factors considered. Results of experiments on particles thresholds, rates of erosion, and the effects of electrostatics on particles in the aeolian environment are presented

Release of magmatic water on Mars: Estimated timing and volumes

By estimating the total amount of water released by volcanic processes on Mars, the abundance of H2O at 10 m was estimated. This value was based on mapping volcanic units, estimating thicknesses and volumes, and using a 10 wt. percent value H2O from terrestrial analogs. By combining such estimates with crater count ages, it is also possible to estimate the timing of water release through Martian history

Mariner 9 photographs of small-scale volcanic structures on Mars

Surface features on the flanks of Martian shield volcanoes photographed by Mariner 9 are identified as lava flow channels, rift zones, and partly collapsed lava tubes by comparisons with similar structures on the flanks of Mauna Loa shield volcano, Hawaii. From these identifications, the composition of the Martian lava flows is interpreted to be basaltic, with viscosities ranging from those of fluid pahoehoe to more viscous aa

The Martian dust cycle: A proposed model

Despite more than a decade of study of martian dust storms, many of their characteristics and associated processes remain enigmatic, including the mechanisms for dust raising, modes of settling, and the nature of dust deposits. However, observations of Mars dust, considerations of terrestrial analogs, theoretical models, and laboratory simulations permit the formulation of a Martian Dust Cycle Model, which consists of three main processes: (1) suspension threshold, (2) transportation, and (3) deposition; two associated processes are also included: (4) dust removal and (5) the addition of new dust to the cycle. Although definitions vary, dust includes particles less than 4 to approx. 60 microns in diameter, which by terrestrial usage includes silt, loess, clay, and aerosolic dust particles. The dust cycle model is explained

Martian surface properties

The objectives were: to characterize surficial geologic units through integration of Infrared Thermal Mapper (IRTM)-derived regolith properties with other existing remote sensing data; to determine the physical and spectral properties of volcanic units in the mid-latitudes of Mars through the synthesis of the highest resolution IRTM, radar, and imaging data available; and to identify and characterize aeolian terrains on Mars using physical surface characteristics determined from remote sensing data

Wind abrasion on Mars

Aeolian activity was predicted for Mars from earth based observations of changing surface patterns that were interpreted as dust storms. Mariner 9 images showed conclusive evidence for aeolian processes in the form of active dust storms and various aeolian landforms including dunes and yardangs. Windspeeds to initiate particle movement are an order of magnitude higher on Mars than on Earth because of the low atmospheric density on Mars. In order to determine rates of abrasion by wind blown particles, knowledge of three factors is required: (1) particle parameters such as numbers and velocities of windblown grains as functions of windspeeds at various heights above the surface; (2) the susceptibility to abrasion of various rocks and minerals; and (3) wind frequencies and speeds. For estimates appropriate to Mars, data for the first two parameters can be determined through lab and wind tunnel tests; data for the last two factors are available directly from the Viking Lander meteorology experiments for the two landing sites

Aeolian processes on Venus

This review assesses the potential aeolian regime on Venus as derived from spacecraft observations, laboratory simulations, and theoretical considerations. The two requirements for aeolian processes (a supply of small, loose particles and winds of sufficient strength to move them) appear to be met on Venus. Venera 9, 10, 13, and 14 images show particles considered to be sand and silt size on the surface. In addition, dust spurts (grains 5 to 50 microns in diameter) observed via lander images and inferred from the Pioneer-Venus nephalometer experiments suggest that the particles are loose and subject to movement. Although data on near surface winds are limited, measurements of 0.3 to 1.2 m/sec from the Venera lander and Pioneer-Venus probes appear to be well within the range required for sand and dust entrainment. Aeolian activity involves the interaction of the atmosphere, lithosphere, and loose particles. Thus, there is the potential for various physical and chemical weathering processes that can effect not only rates of erosion, but changes in the composition of all three components. The Venus Simulator is an apparatus used to simulate weathering under venusian conditions at full pressure (to 112 bars) and temperature (to 800 K). In one series of tests, the physical modifications of windblown particles and rock targets were assessed and it was shown that particles become abraded even when moved by gentle winds. However, little abrasion occurs on the target faces. Thus, compositional signatures for target rocks may be more indicative of the windblown particles than of the bedrock. From these and other considerations, aeolian modifications of the venusian surface may be expected to occur as weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition of surficial materials. Depending upon global and local wind regimes, there may be distinctive sources and sinks of windblown materials. Radar imaging, especially as potentially supplied via the Magellan mission, may enable the identification of such areas on Venus

Wind tunnel simulations of aerolian processes

The characteristics of aerolian (wind) activity as a surface modifying process on Earth, Mars, Venus, and appropriate satellites was determined. A combination of spacecraft data analysis, wind tunnel simulations, and terrestrial field analog studies were used to determine these characteristics. Wind tunnel experiments simulating Venusian surface conditions demonstrate that rolling of particles may be an important mode of transport by winds on Venus and that aerolian processes in the dense atmosphere may share attributes of both aerolian and aqueous environments on Earth