Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Interventions and Diarrhoea - A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

This paper provides a formal systematic review and meta-analysis examining the evidence of the effectiveness of interventions intended to reduce illness through improvements in drinking water, sanitation facilities and hygiene practices. The comprehensive literature search and bibliographic review shows that in developing countries, water quality interventions, specifically point-of-use treatment, reduced diarrhea illness levels, but this effect was mainly seen with the provision of household connections and use of water without household storage. Hygiene interventions, especially those promoting hand-washing, were effective. Only limited data were available for sanitation interventions, but these suggested effectiveness in reducing diarrhea. Multifactorial interventions consisting of water supply, sanitation and hygiene education acted to reduce diarrhea but were not more effective than individual interventions

Evaluation of air-displacement plethysmography in children aged 5-7 years using a three-component model of body composition

The aim of the present study was to evaluate air-displacement plethysmography (ADP) in children aged 5-7 years. Body-composition measurements were obtained by ADP, H-2 dilution and anthropometry in twenty-eight children. Calculation of body volume by ADP was undertaken using adult and children's equations for predicting lung volume and surface area. Fat-free mass (FFM) was calculated using a three-component model. Measured FFM hydration was then compared with values from the reference child. Differences between measured and reference hydration were back-extrapolated, to calculate the error in ADP that would account for any disagreement. Propagation of error was used to distinguish the contributions of methodological precision and biological variability to total hydration variability. The use of children's equations influenced the results for lung volume but not surface area. The mean difference between measured and reference hydration was 0.6 (SD 1.7) % (P<0.10), equivalent to an error in body volume of 0.04 (So 0.20) litres (P<0.30), and in percentage fat of 0.4 (SD 1.9) (P<0.28). The limits of agreement in individuals could be attributed to methodological precision and biological variability in hydration. It is concluded that accuracy of ADP was high for the whole group, with a mean bias of <0.5% fat using the three-component model, and after taking into account biological variability in hydration, the limits of agreement were around 2 % fat in individuals. Paediatric rather than adult equations for lung volume estimation should be used

Is slower early growth beneficial for long-term cardiovascular health?

Background - Accelerated neonatal growth increases the later propensity to cardiovascular disease (CVD) in animals, whereas slower growth is thought to have a beneficial effect. To test this hypothesis in humans, we measured flow-mediated endothelium-dependent dilation (FMD) in a population subject to slower early growth and in healthy controls.Methods and Results - High-resolution vascular ultrasound was used to measure the change in brachial artery diameter in response to reactive hyperemia in adolescents age 13 to 16 years who were either part of a cohort born preterm and followed up prospectively (n = 216) or controls born at term ( n = 61). Greater weight gain or linear growth in the first 2 weeks postnatally was associated with lower FMD at adolescence ( regression coefficient, - 0.026-mm change in mean arterial diameter per 100-g increase in weight; 95% CI, - 0.040 to - 0.012 mm; P = 0.0003) independent of birthweight and potential confounding factors. Mean FMD in the half of the preterm population with the lowest rates of early growth was higher than in both the half with the greatest growth ( P = 0.001) and subjects born at term ( P = 0.03).Conclusions - FMD was 4% lower in adolescents with the highest compared with the lowest rate of weight gain in the first 2 weeks after birth, a substantial negative effect similar to that for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus or smoking in adults. Our findings are consistent with the adverse effects of accelerated neonatal growth on long-term cardiovascular health and suggest that postnatal growth patterns could explain the previously reported association between birthweight and later CVD

The test-retest reliability of different ankle joint center location techniques

Accurate and reliable joint identification is imperative for the collection of meaningful kinetic and kinematic data. Of the lower kinetic chain both the hip and knee joints have received a considerable amount of attention in 3D modelling. However, the reliability of methods to define the ankle joint center have received very little attention. This study investigated the reliability of the two marker method (TMM) and the functional ankle method (FAM) on estimating the ankle joint center. Furthermore, the effects of the two-marker method reliability for defining the ankle joint center when the ankle was covered with a brace or protector was investigated. 3D kinematic data was collected from ten participants (8 female and 2 male) whilst walking. The ankle joint center was defined twice using each test condition; TMM (WITHOUT), FAM (FUNCTIONAL), TMM when the ankle was covered with a brace (BRACE), and TMM when the ankle was covered with a protector (PROTECTOR). Intraclass correlations (ICC) were utilised to compare test and retest waveforms and paired samples t-tests were used to compare angular parameters. Significant differences were found in the test-retest angular parameters in the transverse and sagittal planes for the WITHOUT, BRACE, and FUNCTIONAL conditions. The strongest test-retest ICC’s were observed in the WITHOUT and PROTECTOR conditions. The findings of the current investigation indicate that there are fewer errors using the TMM when the ankle is uncovered or when covered with soft foam that is easy to palpate through

Geographies of youth, volunteering and religion: narratives of young Muslim volunteers in Birmingham, UK

This thesis sits at the interface of three cross-cutting areas of research: youth, volunteering and religion. Geography has made notable contributions to the study of youth in recent years, through a focus on spatialities of the lives of young people. There remains, however, a bias towards research on young people in higher education. Research by geographers on volunteering has been vibrant and diverse, yet understandings of what and who a volunteer is remain hazy and problematic. Islam has received considerable attention within geography. The relationship between Islam and the West is continually shifting and geographical research needs to keep up with this everchanging landscape. This thesis examines the narratives of young Muslim volunteers in Birmingham, UK, exploring four research questions: (1) What is the landscape of volunteering in Muslim communities in Birmingham? ; (2) What pathways do young Muslims take to become volunteers? ; (3) What are the experiences of young Muslims who volunteer? ; and (4) How does volunteering shape the identities of young Muslims? . To address these research questions, a mixed methods approach was utilised, comprising of a questionnaire survey of 382 respondents and a series of 45 interviews amongst Muslims between the ages of 18 to 25. The motivations for volunteering amongst the respondents were primarily altruistic, challenging the depiction of youth volunteering as a route to corporate work. Muslim women were more exposed to discrimination within their own communities through cultural and religious expectations, particularly within more religiously conservative communities. Women were also more exposed to abuse from outside of their communities through Islamophobia. Volunteering amongst young Muslims provided a sense of belonging, eroded stereotypes and broke down barriers within society. The findings of this thesis provide empirical and conceptual contributions to literature on youth, volunteering and religion. The research expands the literature on young people beyond a focus on higher education, as well as providing analytical purchase to the understanding of vital conjunctures in relation to youth transitions. This thesis provides several conceptual contributions to research on volunteering, developing definitions of volunteering to reflect the diversity of formal, informal and embodied micro practices uncovered within this research project. This thesis offers new perspectives on the everyday lives of young Muslims in Britain through their engagement with volunteering

An experimental analysis of operating conditions in cold roll-forming

A detailed literature survey confirmed cold roll-forming to be a complex and little understood process. In spite of its growing value, the process remains largely un-automated with few principles used in set-up of the rolling mill. This work concentrates on experimental investigations of operating conditions in order to gain a scientific understanding of the process. The operating conditions are; inter-pass distance, roll load, roll speed, horizontal roll alignment. Fifty tests have been carried out under varied operating conditions, measuring section quality and longitudinal straining to give a picture of bending. A channel section was chosen for its simplicity and compatibility with previous work. Quality measurements were measured in terms of vertical bow, twist and cross-sectional geometric accuracy, and a complete method of classifying quality has been devised. The longitudinal strain profile was recorded, by the use of strain gauges attached to the strip surface at five locations. Parameter control is shown to be important in allowing consistency in section quality. At present rolling mills are constructed with large tolerances on operating conditions. By reduction of the variability in parameters, section consistency is maintained and mill down-time is reduced. Roll load, alignment and differential roll speed are all shown to affect quality, and can be used to control quality. Set-up time is reduced by improving the design of the mill so that parameter values can be measured and set, without the need for judgment by eye. Values of parameters can be guided by models of the process, although elements of experience are still unavoidable. Despite increased parameter control, section quality is variable, if only due to variability in strip material properties. Parameters must therefore be changed during rolling. Ideally this can take place by closed-loop feedback control. Future work lies in overcoming the problems connected with this control

The response of marine finfish and invertebrates to seismic survey noise

The oil and gas industry is of major economic importance to Australia. Offshore seismic surveys are an essential component of exploration for fossil fuel reserves. Offshore seismic surveys involve the use of arrays of air-guns that produce repetitive high energy, low frequency sound. There is increasing concern about the effect that the noise generated by a seismic survey has on the surrounding marine life. Various species of captive marine fish and one species of squid were exposed to the noise from a single Bolt PAR 600 B air-gun with a 20 cui firing chamber and a source level at 1 m of 203.6 dB re 1 μPa mean squared pressure. Ten trials were conducted in Jervoise Bay and two were carried out off the coast of Exmouth. A different noise regime was used in each trial, however most involved the use of approach-depart scenarios to simulate an actual seismic survey and a 10 second duty cycle. Noise levels received by the animals ranged between 128 - 192 dB re 1 μPa mean squared pressure. Behavioural observations of the fish and squid were made before, during and after air-gun noise exposure. The physiological stress response of the fish was monitored by measuring plasma cortisol and glucose levels before and after noise exposure. The sensory epithelium was removed from the ears of the fish prior to, immediately after and up to 86 days after air-gun noise exposure and examined using a scanning electron microscope. No statistically significant physiological stress response in fish was detected as a result of the air-gun noise exposure regimes used. Significant damage to the ciliary bundles of the sensory epithelium of the sacculus was observed in pink snapper (Pugrus auratus) that had been exposed to air-gun noise between 144 - 191 dB re 1 μPa for 1.71 hours. No regeneration of the hair bundles was observed 58 days after exposure to air-gun noise.However, evidence of regeneration was observed between 58 and 86 days after noise exposure. Behavioural observations suggested that as air-gun noise levels increase, fish respond by swimming faster, in tighter groups and towards the bottom of the water column. Significant increases in alarm responses were observed in fish and squid to air-gun noise exceeding 158 - 163 dB re 1μPa. An increasing proportion of alarm responses were also observed as the noise level increased. A decrease in the frequency of alarm responses for repeated exposures was observed in squid and some fish. The implications of these findings are discussed with comparisons of noise levels measured from an actual 2678 cui seismic survey air-gun array

Recreational Water and Infection: A Review of Recent Findings

This paper reviews the latest evidence provided by epidemiological studies and quantitative microbial risk assessments (QMRAs) of infection risk from recreational water use. Studies for review were selected following a PubMed search for articles published between January 2010 and April 2014. Epidemiological studies show a generally elevated risk of gastrointestinal illness in bathers compared to non-bathers but often no clear association with water quality as measured by faecal indicator bacteria; this is especially true where study sites are impacted by non-point source pollution. Evidence from QMRAs support the lack of a consistent water quality association for non-point source-impacted beaches. It is suggested that source attribution, through quantified microbial source apportionment, linked with appropriate use of microbial source tracking methods should be employed as an integral part of future epidemiological surveys