Correlates of Success for On-Site Releases of Nuisance Black Bears in Great Smoky Mountains National Park

Since 1990, wildlife biologists in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) have used capture and on-site release as a management technique to reduce recurrence of nuisance activity by black bears (Ursus americanus). On-site release involves capture and immobilization of bears that frequent developed areas, collection of biological data, and subsequent release in the area of capture. Our objective was to identify factors related to success of this technique. We classified 85 on-site releases of black bears as successes or failures based on post-release observations and subsequent management actions at the release site. The success rate of on-site releases in GSMNP (58 - 73% for the 3 classifications of success) indicates the overall effectiveness of this technique. We examined 11 variables for their associations with release success. Important variables associated with success of on-site releases were sex, presence of young, type of developed area where capture occurred, time of day that the bear was active in developed areas, and bear population abundance. Our results indicate on-site releases were most effective when bears were captured early in their progression towards nuisance behavior; on-site releases of night-active bears were 4.0 times less likely to require further management actions and at least 7.6 (lower limit of the 95% CI) times less likely to be relocated than day-active bears. Our results further indicate females with young may be the most difficult to deter from developed areas. Therefore, to avoid relocation of a family group, early detection and capture of females with young may be particularly important. Given various scenarios of nuisance bear activity, biologists can use our findings to determine when on-site release is appropriate

Use of Camera Collars to Reassess the Foraging Strategies of Bears in Yellowstone National Park

Black bears and grizzly bears are opportunistic omnivores that consume a seasonally dynamic diet that varies over time and space. Changes in climate may influence the abundance and distribution of foods consumed by bears, which may place bears in closer proximity to humans and increase human-bear interactions. Therefore, reliable data on bear diets will remain important information for managers. Previous studies of bear foraging relied on visiting locations from GPS collars and documenting bear activity, but evidence of activity or foraging was observed at only 30–50% of locations. Emerging technologies, such as GPS camera collars, can provide new insights into the ecology of cryptic animals, including bears, and could be used to better understand the dynamic nature of their diets. During 2014–2016, we deployed GPS camera collars on 3 grizzly bears and 3 black bears in Yellowstone National Park as a pilot study to gain insights about the nutritional ecology of these species. Field crews observed sign of bear activity at ~52% of the GPS locations searched, which is comparable to other studies. However, when we compared the sign found by field crews to videos recorded by the collars at the same locations, the two methods matched only 18.6% of the time. This low congruence demonstrates a need to improve methods to understand foraging activities. Inference may be improved by matching rich datasets from GPS-tracking devices (i.e., location information and accelerometer data) with video documentation to predict bear foraging behaviors

Livestock Depredation by Grizzly Bears on Forest Service Grazing Allotments in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Grizzly bear population growth and range expansion over the last several decades in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) has led to increased human-bear conflicts, including livestock depredation. In 2015, we began a study to evaluate spatio-temporal relationships between livestock grazing, grizzly bear habitat characteristics, and livestock depredations by grizzly bears on public lands in the GYE during 1992–2014. In collaboration with the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team, and National Park Service, we have obtained 23 years of grazing allotment attributes for 316 USFS and Grand Teton National Park grazing allotments including: livestock stocking information, grizzly bear habitat characteristics, grizzly bear density and distribution, and livestock depredation counts. Overall counts of livestock depredation events, total livestock killed, and the number of allotments experiencing depredations increased from 1992 to 2014, concurrent with range expansion and increasing grizzly bear densities. Annual depredation events per allotment differed by livestock class, where allotments stocked with cow-calf pairs and sheep experienced the majority of depredations. Livestock depredation counts will be modeled with livestock stocking data and grizzly bear habitat variables to better understand which attributes of grazing allotments had the greatest association with the number of depredations over the study period. We will evaluate habitat attributes at two spatial scales, representing daily and annual grizzly bear activity areas. Our results will enhance adaptive approaches to conserve grizzly bears, while also maintaining the economic viability of livestock operations

Diet and Macronutrient Optimization in Wild Ursids: Grizzly Bears Versus Black Bears

When fed ad libitum, ursids can maximize mass gain by selecting mixed diets wherein protein provides 17 ± 4% of digestible energy.  In the wild, this ability is likely constrained.  By visiting locations of 37 individuals during 274 bear-days, we documented foods consumed by grizzly (Ursus arctos) and black bears (Ursus americanus) in Grand Teton National Park during 2004–2006.  Based on published data, we estimated foods and macronutrients as percentages of daily energy intake.  Using principal components and cluster analyses, we identified 14 daily diet types.  Only 4 diets, accounting for 21% of days, provided optimal protein levels.  Nine diets (75% of days) led to over-consumption of protein, and 1 diet (3% of days) led to under-consumption.  Highest protein levels were associated with animal matter (i.e., insects, vertebrates), which accounted for 46–47% of daily energy for both species.  As predicted: 1) daily diets dominated by vertebrates were positively associated with grizzly bears and protein intake was positively associated with body mass; 2) diets dominated by fruits were positively associated with black bears; and 3) mean protein was highest during spring, when high-energy foods were scarce, however it was also higher than optimal during summer and fall.  Although optimal gain of body mass was constrained, bears opted for the energetically superior trade-off of consuming high-energy, high-protein foods.  Given protein digestion efficiency similar to obligate carnivores, this choice likely supported mass gain, consistent with studies showing monthly increases in percent body fat among bears in this region

Grizzly Bear Scavenging of Carrion on the Northern Yellowstone Winter Range (1997-2012)

The Northern Yellowstone Winter Range (NYWR) in northwestern Wyoming and southwestern Montana is an important winter migratory destination for ungulates.  The NYWR is within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), a landscape characterized by a complex ecological system of predators, scavengers, and ungulates.  Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) are dominant members of the scavenging community throughout the spring.  However, little is known about factors associated with grizzly bear use of carcasses.  Of particular interest to managers is how habitat and anthropogenic factors are associated with carcass use.  Such information, for example, may be useful to manage spring recreation in important bear foraging areas to reduce conflict and support conservation efforts.  We used logistic regression to analyze spring survey data from 23 transects located in Yellowstone National Park and the Gallatin National Forest during 1997–2012, to identify factors associated with grizzly bear scavenging of winter- or predator-killed ungulates.  Multi-model inference was used to evaluate relative support for a set of a priori candidate models containing environmental and temporal correlates. Our preliminary findings showed support for models with distance to forest edge, road density, and elevation. Results indicated negative relationships between these factors and probability of carcass use.  Our results suggest that spatial heterogeneity in landscape-level habitat characteristics and human activity affect grizzly bear use of a valuable spring food source

Secondary forest within a timber plantation concession in Borneo contributes to a diverse mammal assemblage

Commercial tree plantations of fast-growing species have become increasingly important in Southeast Asia to meet global demand for wood and wood fiber products. There is a growing need to understand more about their value for wildlife and how they can be managed for biodiversity. We evaluated the effects of landscape attributes on mammal communities in a timber concession consisting of 83 % secondary forest and 17 % tree plantations in northern Sabah, Malaysia. Using camera traps, we compared mammalian species assemblages of secondary forest and commercial tree plantation stands and identified habitat predictors associated with total mammal species detections and species richness in the landscape mosaic. We used 87 camera stations deployed for 23 days across two major land-use types: 62 sites in secondary forest (previously logged natural forest) and 25 sites in tree plantations. We evaluated variation in species richness in these two major land-use categories and assessed the effects of natural and anthropogenic predictors on variation in total mammal detections and species richness. We detected at least 23 large and medium-sized mammal species over 2035 trap nights. Fourteen of those species were classified as threatened or near-threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Rarefaction did not reveal differences in mammal species richness or diversity between camera sites placed in tree plantations and secondary forests, likely because most camera sites in tree plantations were close to secondary forest and comprised < 30 % of all sites. However, generalized linear models indicated lower mammal diversity as proportions of tree plantation and proximity to human settlements increased. Total mammal records, including those of threatened mammals, increased with greater proportions of secondary forest. Retention of larger tracts of secondary forest around plantation areas appears to be important to maintain mammalian species richness and contributes to the conservation value of commercial timber plantations. These findings may assist in the management of mammals of conservation concern and implementation of adaptive management plans to enhance biodiversity conservation in commercial plantations

Density Dependence, Whitebark Pine Decline and Vital Rates of Grizzly Bears in The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Recent evidence suggests annual population growth of the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) population in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has slowed from 4.1–7.6 percent during 1983–2001 to 0.3–2.2 percent during 2002–2011. Substantial changes in availability of an important fall food has occurred over the past decade. Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), a highly variable but important fall food source for grizzly bears, has experienced substantial mortality due to a mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreak that started in the early 2000s. Concurrent with changes in food resources, the grizzly bear population has reached high densities in some areas and has continued to expand, now occupying &gt;50,000 km2. We tested research hypotheses to examine if changes in vital rates detected during the past decade were more associated with grizzly bear density versus a whitebark pine decline. We focused our assessment on known-fate data to estimate survival of cubs-of-the-year, yearlings, and independent bears (? 2 yrs) and reproductive transition of females from having no offspring to having cubs.  We observed a change in survival of independent bears between the periods of 1983–2001 and 2002–2012, which was mostly a function of increased male survival; female survival did not change. Cub survival and reproductive transition declined during the last decade and were associated with an index of grizzly bear density, which indicated increasing density over time. We found no support that the decline in these vital rates was associated with the index of whitebark decline

Influence of Whitebark Pine Decline on Fall Habitat Use and Movements of Grizzly Bears in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Seeds of whitebark pine (WBP; Pinus albicaulis) are a major food item for grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Higher rates of bear mortality and bear-human conflicts are linked with low WBP productivity. Recently, infestations of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) have killed many mature, cone-bearing WBP trees. We investigated whether this decline caused bears to reduce their use of WBP and increase use of areas near humans. We used 52,332 GPS locations of 72 individuals (89 bear-years) monitored during fall (15 Aug–30 Sep) to examine temporal changes in habitat use and movements during 2000–2011. We calculated a Manley-Chesson (MC) index for selectivity of mapped WBP habitats for each individual within its 100% local convex hull home range, and determined dates of WBP use. One third of sampled grizzly bears had fall ranges with little or no mapped WBP habitat. Most other bears (72%) had a MC index &gt; 0.5, indicating selection for WBP habitats. Over the study period, mean MC index decreased and median date of WBP use shifted about 1 week later. We detected no trends in movement indices over time. Outside of national parks, 78 percent of bears selected for secure habitat (areas ? 500 m from roads), but mean MC index decreased over the study period during years of good WBP productivity. The foraging plasticity of grizzly bears likely allowed them to adjust to declining WBP. However, the reduction in mortality risk associated with use of WBP habitat may be diminishing for bears in multiple-use areas

Carnivore hotspots in Peninsular Malaysia and their landscape attributes

Mammalian carnivores play a vital role in ecosystem functioning. However, they are prone to extinction because of low population densities and growth rates, and high levels of persecution or exploitation. In tropical biodiversity hotspots such as Peninsular Malaysia, rapid conversion of natural habitats threatens the persistence of this vulnerable group of animals. Here, we carried out the first comprehensive literature review on 31 carnivore species reported to occur in Peninsular Malaysia and updated their probable distribution. We georeferenced 375 observations of 28 species of carnivore from 89 unique geographic locations using records spanning 1948 to 2014. Using the Getis-Ord Gi*statistic and weighted survey records by IUCN Red List status, we identified hotspots of species that were of conservation concern and built regression models to identify environmental and anthropogenic landscape factors associated with Getis-Ord Gi* z scores. Our analyses identified two carnivore hotspots that were spatially concordant with two of the peninsula’s largest and most contiguous forest complexes, associated with Taman Negara National Park and Royal Belum State Park. A cold spot overlapped with the southwestern region of the Peninsula, reflecting the disappearance of carnivores with higher conservation rankings from increasingly fragmented natural habitats. Getis-Ord Gi* z scores were negatively associated with elevation, and positively associated with the proportion of natural land cover and distance from the capital city. Malaysia contains some of the world’s most diverse carnivore assemblages, but recent rates of forest loss are some of the highest in the world. Reducing poaching and maintaining large, contiguous tracts of lowland forests will be crucial, not only for the persistence of threatened carnivores, but for many mammalian species in general

Trends in Causes and Distribution, and Effects of Whitebark Pine Decline on Grizzly Bear Mortality in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Documented grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) mortalities have been increasing in recent years in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), due, in part, to increases in bear numbers and range expansion. Previous research has documented that variable seed production of whitebark pine (WBP; Pinus albicaulis), an important fall food, is inversely related to grizzly bear fall mortality.  However, WBP has experienced widespread mortality during the last decade because of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) infestations. We investigated trends in causes and distribution of human-caused mortalities for independent-aged (? 2 yrs old) grizzly bears in the GYE during 1975–2012, and the effect of WBP cone production on numbers of fall (&gt; 1 August) mortalities (n = 172) during the period of WBP decline (2000-2012) using Poisson regression. During 1975–1982, 91 percent of mortalities occurred within the Grizzly Bear Recovery Zone and primary causes were poaching/malicious killings and losses related to conflicts with livestock. During the two most recent decades most mortalities were associated with ungulate hunting, usually involving self-defense kills, or anthropogenic sites, and an increasing percentage of mortalities occurred outside the recovery zone. Using predictor variables of cone production, sex, location in or out of the Recovery Zone, and year suggests: 1) annual cone production was still predictive of human-caused fall mortalities, 2) no evidence of a difference in annual numbers of fall mortalities between males and females, and 3) an increase in annual mortalities over the study period, with most of this increase outside the Recovery Zone