Emotional eating is related with temperament but not with stress biomarkers in preschool children.

Emotional eating (EE) corresponds to a change in eating behavior in response to distress and results in an increase of food intake (overeating (EOE)) or in food avoidance (undereating (EUE)). EE has been related to temperament (i.e. negative emotionality) and dysregulated stress biomarkers in school-aged children; parenting has been understood to influence this relationship in older children. The aim of the study was to investigate to which extent stress biomarkers and negative emotionality are related to EE and to understand the role of parenting in this relationship. The sample consisted of 271 children aged 2-6 years of the Swiss cohort study SPLASHY. We assessed the child's EE, negative emotionality and parenting by parent based reports. Salivary samples were collected over two days to analyze cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase levels. From the whole sample of children, 1.1% showed EOE and 32.9% EUE. Negative emotionality was related to EOE and EUE (0.13 (CI 0.06, 021), p < 0.001; 0.25 (CI 0.14, 0.35), p < 0.001). There was no relationship between stress biomarkers and EE and parenting had any moderating role (all p > 0.05). Similar to a Danish study, parents reported more often EUE than EOE of their child. Both are related to the temperament. Even though the course of EE has not yet been well documented, we conclude that a certain subgroup of children with difficult temperament could be at-risk for eat and weight regulation problems in later childhood

Regional sociocultural differences as important correlate of physical activity and sedentary behaviour in Swiss preschool children.

Regional differences in physical activity in school-aged children and adults even within one country with the same political and health care system have been observed and could not be explained by sociodemographic or individual variables. We analysed whether such differences were already present in preschool children. Swiss children from 84 childcare centres in five cantons (Aargau, Bern, Fribourg, Vaud, Zurich) comprising about 50% of the population of the country participated. Physical activity was quantified with accelerometers (ActiGraph, wGT3X-BT) and potential correlates were assessed with measurements at the childcare centre or questionnaires. Mixed regression models were used to test associations between potential correlates of total physical activity (TPA), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), light physical activity (LPA) or sedentary behaviour with a special focus on regional differences. 394 of 476 children (83%) provided valid physical activity data (at least 2 weekdays and 1 weekend day with 10 h recording; mean age 3.9 ± 0.7 years, 54% boys) with 26% and 74% living in the French- and German-speaking parts of Switzerland, respectively. Days consisted of (mean ± standard deviation) 1.5 ± 0.5 h MVPA, 5.0 ± 0.6 h LPA, and 6.3 ± 0.8 h sedentary behaviour with an average of 624 ± 150 counts/min TPA. TPA and MVPA (but not sedentary behaviour or LPA) increased with age, were higher in boys and children with better motor skills. Despite controlling for individual characteristics, familial factors and childcare exposure, children from the French-speaking part of Switzerland showed 13% less TPA, 14% less MVPA, 6% less LPA and 8% more sedentary behaviour than German-speaking children. Beside motor skills and non-modifiable individual factors, the regional sociocultural difference was the most important correlate of phyical activity and sedentary behaviour. Therefore, regionally adapted public health strategies may be needed

The relationship of parenting style and eating behavior in preschool children.

Eating behavior represents individual appetitive traits which are related to the individual's regulation of food intake. Eating behavior develops at an early age. There is some evidence that parenting styles might impact on the child's eating behavior. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of different dimensions of positive and negative parenting styles with the child's eating behavior at a critical age period of the child's early development. Parents of 511 preschool children (aged 2-6 years) completed the Children Eating Behavior Questionnaire and the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. Analyses revealed that different dimensions of negative parenting styles were associated with eating behavior of the child. In details, inconsistent parenting showed a consistent association with eating behavior of a child (i.e. higher emotional eating, higher food responsiveness, higher food fussiness, higher satiety responsiveness and more enjoyment of food), whereas corporal punishment was associated with more emotional overeating and more food responsiveness but less satiety responsiveness. Further, powerful implementation was related to higher food responsiveness and less enjoyment of food and low monitoring was associated with higher emotional overeating and more slowness in eating. There was no such consistent association of positive parenting and eating behavior. More negative parenting styles were associated with eating behavior which is more often related to potential weight problems in a long term, whereas positive parenting did not show such a consistent relationship with eating behavior. Negative parenting should be in the focus of prevention and treatment of eating behavior problems in young children. ISRCTN41045021 (06/05/2014)

Correlates of preschool children's objectively measured physical activity and sedentary behavior: a cross-sectional analysis of the SPLASHY study.

Identifying ways to promote physical activity and decrease sedentary time during childhood is a key public health issue. Research on the putative influences on preschool children's physical activity (PA) and sedentary behavior (SB) is limited and has yielded inconsistent results. Our aim was to identify correlates of PA and SB in preschool children. Cross-sectional data were drawn from the Swiss Preschoolers' Health Study (SPLASHY), a Swiss population-based cohort study. Of 476 two to six year old children, 394 (54% boys) had valid PA data assessed by accelerometry. Information on exposure data was directly measured or extracted from parental questionnaires. Multilevel linear regression modeling was used to separately assess associations between 35 potential correlates and total PA (TPA), moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and SB. In total, 12 correlates from different domains were identified. TPA and MVPA were greater in boys than girls, increased with age and were positively associated with gross motor skills. Children from single parent families had a higher level of TPA and spent less time sedentary than those living with two parents. Time spent outdoors was positively associated with TPA and negatively with SB. The child's activity temperament was related all three outcomes, whereas parental sports club membership, living area per person and neighborhood safety were associated with SB only. Fixed and random factors in the final models accounted for 28%, 32% and 22% of the total variance in TPA, MVPA and SB, respectively. Variance decomposition revealed that age, sex and activity temperament were the most influential correlates of both, TPA and MVPA, whereas the child's activity temperament, time outdoors and neighborhood safety were identified as the most important correlates of SB. A multidimensional set of correlates of young children's activity behavior has been identified. Personal factors had the greatest influence on PA, whereas environmental-level factors had the greatest influence on SB. Moreover, we identified a number of previously unreported, potentially modifiable correlates of young children's PA and SB. These factors could serve to define target groups or become valuable targets for change in future interventions. Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN41045021 (date of registration: 21.03.14)

Childcare Correlates of Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior, and Adiposity in Preschool Children: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the SPLASHY Study.

The childcare (CC) environment can influence young children's physical activity (PA), sedentary behavior (SB), and adiposity. The aim of the study was to identify a broad range of CC correlates of PA, SB, and adiposity in a large sample of preschoolers. 476 preschool children (mean age 3.9 yrs; 47% girls) participated in the Swiss Preschoolers' Health Study (SPLASHY). PA and SB were measured by accelerometry. Outcome measures included total PA (TPA), moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), SB, body mass index (BMI), and skinfold thickness (SF). PA measures consisted of both daily PA during CC attendance days and overall daily PA (CC and non-CC days). We identified the following CC correlates for higher TPA and/or higher MVPA or lower SB during CC attendance days: older age, sex (boys), more frequent child-initiated interactions during CC, mixing different ages within a group, and the presence of a written PA policy in the CC (all p ≤ 0.02). The CC correlates for overall TPA and/or MVPA or lower overall SB including both CC and non-CC days were the following: older age, sex (boys), more frequent child-initiated interactions during CC, mixing different ages within a group, less parental PA involvement in the CC, and having a larger surface area in CC (all p ≤ 0.046). Correlates for lower SF were sex (boys) and parental PA involvement in the CC (all p ≤ 0.02), and, for lower BMI, only increased age (p=0.001) was a correlate. More frequent child-initiated interactions and mixing different ages in CC, the presence of a written PA policy, and a larger CC surface are correlates of PA and SB during CC attendance days and/or of overall PA. Parental involvement in CC PA projects was a correlate for reduced body fat. These novel factors are mostly modifiable and can be tackled/addressed in future interventions

Predictors of Executive Functions in Preschoolers: Findings From the SPLASHY Study.

Executive functions (EFs) have been reported to play a crucial role in children's development, affecting their academic achievement, health, and quality of life. This study examined individual and interpersonal predictors for EFs in 555 typically developing preschool children aged 2-6 years. Children were recruited from 84 child care centers in the German- and French-speaking parts of Switzerland within the Swiss Preschoolers' Health Study (SPLASHY). A total of 20 potential predictors were assessed at the first measurement (T1). These included eight demographic/biological predictors, such as socioeconomic status, preterm birth, physical activity, and motor skills; six psychological predictors, such as hyperactivity, visual perception, and emotionality; and six interpersonal predictors, such as parenting style and stress, presence of siblings, and days spent in the child care center. The predictive value of these variables on EFs 1 year later (T2) was assessed using both standard multiple regression analysis and penalized regression to avoid overfitting due to the number of potential predictors. Female sex (β = 0.14), socio-economic status (β = 0.15), fine motor skills (β = 0.17), visual perception at T1 (β = 0.16), and EFs at T1 (β = 0.30) were all associated with EFs at T2, exhibiting small to medium effect sizes. All predictors together accounted for 31% of the variability in EFs. However, none of the interpersonal predictors were significant. Thus, we conclude that most of the factors that can predict EFs in preschool age are individual variables, and these tend to be more difficult to influence than interpersonal factors. In fact, children from families with low socio-economic status may be particularly vulnerable to poor EFs. Furthermore, encouraging fine motor skills early in life may support the development of EFs

The validity of parental reports on motor skills performance level in preschool children: a comparison with a standardized motor test.

Motor skills are interrelated with essential domains of childhood such as cognitive and social development. Thus, the evaluation of motor skills and the identification of atypical or delayed motor development is crucial in pediatric practice (e.g., during well-child visits). Parental reports on motor skills may serve as possible indicators to decide whether further assessment of a child is necessary or not. We compared parental reports on fundamental motor skills performance level (e.g., hopping, throwing), based on questions frequently asked in pediatric practice, with a standardized motor test in 389 children (46.5% girls/53.5% boys, M age = 3.8 years, SD = 0.5, range 3.0-5.0 years) from the Swiss Preschoolers' Health Study (SPLASHY). Motor skills were examined using the Zurich Neuromotor Assessment 3-5 (ZNA3-5), and parents filled in an online questionnaire on fundamental motor skills performance level. The results showed that the answers from the parental report correlated only weakly with the objectively assessed motor skills (r = .225, p < .001). Although a parental screening instrument for motor skills would be desirable, the parent's report used in this study was not a valid indicator for children's fundamental motor skills. Thus, we may recommend to objectively examine motor skills in clinical practice and not to exclusively rely on parental report. What is Known: • Early assessment of motor skills in preschool children is important because motor skills are essential for the engagement in social activities and the development of cognitive abilities. Atypical or delayed motor development can be an indicator for different developmental needs or disorders. • Pediatricians frequently ask parents about the motor competences of their child during well-child visits. What is New: • The parental report on fundamental motor skills performance level used in this study was not a reliable indicator for describing motor development in the preschool age. • Standardized examinations of motor skills are required to validly assess motor development in preschoolers

Physical activity and sedentary behavior in preschoolers: a longitudinal assessment of trajectories and determinants.

Despite physical activity (PA) being recognized as a critically important factor for good physical and mental health already early in life and throughout the life course, prospective data on activity behavior during the preschool years remains scarce. This study examined trajectories and determinants of levels and change in total PA (TPA), moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and sedentary behavior (SB) in a representative sample of Swiss preschoolers. Data were drawn from the Swiss Preschoolers' Health Study (SPLASHY), a multi-site prospective cohort study including 555 children (53% boys) aged 2-to-6 years at baseline. A follow-up was conducted after 12 months. Activity behavior was measured using accelerometers. Information on 35 potential determinants from different socio-ecological domains was either directly measured or parent-reported. Trajectories of TPA, MVPA and SB over time were described for boys and girls. Linear mixed models were used to investigate factors that predicted levels and change in TPA, MVPA and SB. All children were sufficiently physically active according to published recommendations for preschoolers. Trajectory profiles revealed a marked increase in TPA and MVPA in boys and girls whereas SB remained fairly stable over time. Mixed modeling demonstrated that variables most relevant to determining PA levels were sex, age and activity temperament (all positively associated). Together with gross motor skills, birth weight, family structure (only for TPA) and season (only for MVPA), these factors accounted for 26 and 32% of total variance explained in TPA and MVPA, respectively. Activity temperament emerged as the strongest determinant of SB (negative association) and explained with sex, season and family structure 20% of total variance in SB. The presence of older siblings was the only factor that predicted change in PA over time. In this healthy physically active cohort of preschoolers, non-modifiable individual-level factors had the greatest influence on PA. The limited success of this and previous studies to identify modifiable determinants and the finding that most preschoolers were sufficiently active suggest that future attempts should provide insights into how preschoolers' activity levels can be maintained and fostered to prevent subsequent harmful declines attributable, amongst others, to educational transitions. Thus, good-quality longitudinal studies are needed. Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN41045021 (date of registration: 21.03.14)

Prevalence and Predictors of Behavioral Problems in Healthy Swiss Preschool Children Over a One Year Period.

Behavioral problems impair children's health but prevalence rates are scarce and persistence rates vary due to divergence in age ranges, assessment methods and varying environmental factors. The aim of this study was to assess prevalence rates of behavioral problems, their persistence over a 1-year period, and the impact of child- and parent-related factors on behavioral problems. 555 2-6-year-old healthy preschool children were assessed at baseline and 382 of the initial sample at 1-year follow-up. Assessment included questionnaires concerning behavioral problems and their potential predictors (e.g. socio-economic status or parenting style). Altogether, nearly 7% of these children showed clinically relevant behavioral problems, and 3% showed persistent symptoms. Low SES, inconsistent parenting and corporal punishment were positively associated with behavioral problems. The prevalence rates of behavioral problems in Swiss preschoolers are similar to other European countries, but persistence is still rather low within preschool age. These findings need further confirmation in longitudinal studies

Accelerometer-derived physical activity estimation in preschoolers - comparison of cut-point sets incorporating the vector magnitude vs the vertical axis.

ActiGraph accelerometers are a widely used tool to objectively measure physical activity (PA) behavior in young children and several validated cut-point sets exist to estimate time spent in different PA intensities (sedentary time, light PA, moderate-to-vigorous PA). Applying different cut-point sets leads to large and meaningful differences in results. So far, only cut-point sets validated for the vertical axis have been compared and only the influence on time spent in moderate-to-vigorous PA has been analyzed. A range of validated cut-point sets with their respective epoch length was applied to analyze cross-sectional data of the Swiss Preschoolers' Health Study (SPLASHY): 1) Vertical axis in combination with an epoch length of 15 s (VA-15), 2) Vertical axis in combination with an epoch length of 60 s (VA-60) and 3) Vector magnitude in combination with an epoch length of 60 s (VM-60). PA was measured for eight consecutive days using ActiGraph accelerometers (wGT3X-BT). Three days were required to be included in the analysis (minimum two weekdays and one weekend-day with at least ten hours recording per day). Four hundred forty-five preschoolers (mean age 3.9 ± 0.5 years; 46% girls) had valid accelerometer measurements. A longer epoch (VA-60 vs VA-15) resulted in 2% less sedentary time (ST), 18% more light PA (LPA) and 51% less moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA); using the vector magnitude compared to the vertical axis (VM-60 vs VA-60) resulted in 34% less ST, 27% more LPA and 63% more MVPA (all p ≤ 0.001). Comparing all three sets of cut-points, ST ranged from 4.0 to 6.2 h, LPA from 5.1 to 7.6 h and MVPA from 0.8 to 1.6 h. Estimated time spent in different PA intensities was strongly influenced by the choice of cut-point sets. Both, axis selection and epoch length need to be considered when comparing different studies especially when they relate PA behavior to health. The differences in the prevalence of children fulfilling PA guidelines highlight the relevance of these findings. Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN41045021 (date of registration: 21.03.2014)