Improving energy efficiency in Swiss industrial sectors: status, emerging technologies and trends

The Paris Agreement 2015 is a historic initiative taken by the global community to fight against climate change and steer the world towards clean energy transition. The industry sector which accounts for almost one-third of the global final energy demand offers great potential for energy efficiency improvement. Energy efficiency (EE) is also a major pillar of the Swiss Energy Strategy 2050. Although several steps to incentivize EE improvement in industry have been taken in Switzerland, the size of the EE gap that currently exists in its high-value manufacturing sector is largely unknown. Since industrial technologies are advancing rapidly, it is important to evaluate the current diffusion of conventional measures and the potential wide-scale application of emerging technologies in the sector. This thesis employs bottom-up methods to assess the techno-economic final energy saving potentials in industry in the short-to-medium term at the level of individual sectors and for cross-cutting technologies

Karbon nanotüp takvi̇yeli̇ poli̇mer kompozi̇tleri̇n sayısal modellenmesi̇

This thesis investigates the effects of chirality and size of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) on the mechanical properties of both SWNTs and carbon nanotube reinforced epoxy composites (CNTRPs). First, a novel 3D beam element finite element model is developed based on equivalent-continuum mechanics approach and used for replacing C-C chemical bond for modelling SWNTs. The effects of diameter and chirality on the Young’s moduli, shear moduli, shear strains and Poisson’s ratios of SWNTs are studied. For modelling CNTRPs, the aforementioned SWNTs are embedded into the epoxy resin finite element model. The volume fraction of SWNTs in epoxy is taken as 5% while the diameter for interface region between the two phases is taken twice to that of the SWNTs. For modelling interface regions, two approaches named as non-bonded interactions model and perfect bonding model are used and compared against each other. The latter approach is employed for evaluating the effects of chirality and size of SWNTs on the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of CNTRPs. The results for Young’s moduli are in good agreement with those calculated by a theoretical relation known as continuum rule of mixtures. In order to quantify the structural mass reduction by using these CNTRPs for a particular application, specific strength is calculated for both pure epoxy resin and the composite. Result shows that the structural mass can be reduced 5 times compared to that of epoxy if its nanocomposite is used in its potential applications where the strength and volume requirements are fixed such as parts for automobiles and aircrafts. This mass reduction will ultimately lead towards better mileage, fuel savings and reduction in carbon emissions.Bu tez Tek Duvarlı Karbon Nanotüpler’in (TDKNT) kiralite ve boyutlarının, Tek Duvarlı Karbon Nanotüpler (TDKNT) ve Karbon Nanotüp Takviyeli Epoksi Polimerler’in (KNTTP) mekanik özelliklerine etkilerini incelemektedir. İlk etapta, eşdeğer sürekli ortamlar mekaniği yaklaşımına dayalı üç boyutlu bir kiriş elemanı içeren yeni bir sonlu elemanlar modeli geliştirilmiş ve bu kiriş eleman karbon – karbon bağının modellenmesinde kullanılmıştır. TDKNT çapı ve kiralitesininYoung (elastisite) modülü, kesme modülü, kesme gerinimi ve Poisson oranı üzerine etkisi çalışılmıştır. KNTTP modellemesi için, geliştirilen TDKNT sonlu elemanlar modeli epoksi reçine matris sonlu elemalar modeline entegre edilmiştir. Kompozit içindeki karbon nanotüp oranı hacmen %5 alınmış, karbon nanotüp – epoksi matris arasındaki arayüzey bölgesinin çapı karbon nanotüp yarıçapının iki katı olarak kabul edilmiştir. Arayüzey bölgesinin modellenmesi için bağsız etkileşimler modeli ve mükemmel bağ modeli adı verilen iki yaklaşım kullanılmıştır. Mükemmel bağ modeli kullanılarak, TDKNT’lerin kiralite ve boyutlarının KNTTP’lerinYoung (elastisite) modülü ve Poisson oranı üzerine etkisi değerlendirilmiştir. Elde edilen Young (elastisite) modülü sonuçları, sürekli ortamlar karışımlar kuralı kullanılarak elde edilen teorik sonuçlara oldukça yakındır. KNTTP’leri içeren belirli bir uygulama için kütlesel azalmayı belirlemek amacıyla epoksi reçine ve kompozit için öz mukavemet değerleri hesaplanmıştır. Sonuçlar çeşitli otomotiv ve uçak parçalarında kompozit kullanımının sadece epoksi reçine kullanımına kıyasla kütlede 5 kata varan azalmayı mukavemetsel kayıp olmaksızın sağladığını göstermiştir. Bu kazanımlar çeşitli taşıtlar için az yakıtla daha uzun mesafe alınmasını ve karbon salınımın azalmasını sağlayacaktır.M.S. - Master of Scienc

Investigating the mechanical properties of single walled carbon nanotube reinforced epoxy composite through finite element modelling

Varying experimental results on the mechanical properties of carbon nanotube reinforced polymer composites (CNTRPs) have been reported due to the complexities associated with the characterization of material properties in nano-scale. Insight into the issues associated with CNTRPs may be brought through computational techniques time- and cost-effectively. In this study, finite element models are generated in which single walled carbon nanotube models are embedded into the epoxy resin. For modelling interface regions, two approaches named as non-bonded interactions and perfect bonding model are utilized and compared against each other. Representative volume finite element (RVE) models are built for a range of CNTRPs and employed for the evaluation of effects of diameter and chirality on the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of CNTRPs, for which there is a paucity in the literature. The outcomes of this study are in good agreement with those reported available in the literature earlier. The proposed modelling approach presents a valuable tool for determining other material properties of CNTRPs

The importance of additionality in evaluating the economic viability of motor-related energy efficiency measures

The additionality of an energy efficiency (EE) measure is defined as the supplementary impact of a measure beyond standard practices and autonomous changes. The consideration of additionality and the manner of accounting for it may strongly influence the cost-effectiveness of the EE measures and consequently the decision by policy makers. Many studies on energy efficiency improvement potentials fail to provide transparency regarding the methodology and underlying data (discount rate, lifetime etc.) used in their respective cost-benefit analyses for evaluating EE measures. Against this backdrop, this paper discusses various approaches based on US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines, using the example of a 45 kW electric motor. We compare the case of disregarding additionality with several other approaches, i.e. only accounting for age (as applied by the Energy Agency for the Swiss Private Sector - EnAW) and other approaches that consider the salvage value as well as differences in investment cost and electricity savings (as applied by the ProKilowatt program, operated by Swiss Federal Office of Energy - SFOE). This study concludes that the chosen method very strongly impacts the results, i.e. by factors and potentially even resulting in opposite findings concerning cost-effectiveness. Choosing full investment costs may lead to the conclusion that the measure is not cost-effective while all other approaches result in the opposite conclusion (economically viable). For slowly expanding manufacturing sectors in an industrialized country like Switzerland (limited growth, mature capital stock) it is found that the additionality approach based exclusively on age overestimates the cost-effectiveness. This study therefore recommends alternative approaches which allow to establish the uncertainty range of cost-effectiveness, while maintaining transparency

Bottom-up analysis of energy efficiency improvement and CO2 emission reduction potentials in the Swiss cement industry

The cement industry is among the top three industrial energy consumers in Switzerland with a share of 9% of the total final energy demand by Swiss industry in 2014. It is also a major contributor to the Swiss greenhouse gas emissions, releasing approximately 2.7 Mt of CO2 in 2014 (including both fossil and mineral CO2). This study investigates the energy efficiency improvement and CO2 abatement potential in the Swiss cement industry by means of energy efficiency cost curves. The energy savings potential for this sector is estimated based on the data collected from literature and via interviews with the experts. The current economic potential for final energy savings and CO2 abatement is estimated at 14% and 13% of the sector's final energy use and CO2 emissions in 2014 respectively and the total investment costs are approximately CHF ∼120 million (approx. USD 115 million). This study also highlights techno-economic barriers that are limiting implementation of the best practices in Swiss cement plants. Due to the relatively low current final energy and CO2 prices, the cost savings of the cost-effective measures are found to be low to very low. While the sensitivity to higher fuel prices (+50%) is limited, a CO2 tax of 84 CHF/t CO2 (approx. 80 USD/t CO2) would make carbon capture and storage economically viable and allow to drastically reduce CO2 emissions. The results of this study offer a better understanding of the energy efficiency gap in the sector and can serve as basis for formulating more effective policies

Cost-effectiveness analysis of energy efficiency measures in the Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industry

Energy efficiency improvement is an effective way of reducing energy demand and CO2 emissions. Although the overall final energy savings potential in chemical industry has been estimated in a few countries, energy efficiency potentials by concrete measures applicable in the sector have been scarcely explored and their associated costs are hardly analyzed. In Switzerland, the production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals exceeds all other industrial sec-tors in terms of energy use and CO2 emissions, and it accounted for 22% of the total industry's overall final energy demand and 25% of the CO2 emissions related to non‐renewable energy sources in 2016. In this study, the economic potentials for energy efficiency improvement and CO2 emissions reduction in the Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industry are investigated in the form of energy efficiency cost curves. The economic potential for final energy savings and CO2 abatement based on energy‐relevant investments is estimated at 15% and 22% of the sector's final energy use and fossil fuel‐related CO2 emissions in 2016, respectively. Measures related to process heat integration are expected to play a key role for final energy savings. The economic electricity savings potential by improving motor systems is estimated at 15% of the electricity demand by these systems in 2016. The size of economic potential of energy efficiency improvement across the sector decreases from 15% to 11%for 0.5 times lower final energy prices while the size increases insignificantly for 1.5 times higher final energy prices. The additional power generation potential based on Combined Heat and Power plants is estimated at 14 MW for 2016.This study is a contribution to the so far limited international literature on economic energy efficiency measures applicable in this heterogeneous sector and can support policy development. The results for specific costs of energy efficiency measures can also be adapted to other parts of the world by making suitable adjustments which in return may provide useful insights for decision makers to invest in economically viable clean energy solutions

Estimating the Effect of Chirality and Size on the Mechanical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes Through Finite Element Modelling

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are considered to be one of the contemporary materials exhibiting superior mechanical, thermal and electrical properties. A new generation state-of-the-art composite material, carbon nanotube reinforced polymer (CNTRP), utilizes carbon nanotubes as the reinforcing fibre element. CNTRPs are highly promising composite materials possessing the potential to be used in various areas such as automotive, aerospace, defence, and energy sectors. The CNTRP composite owes its frontline mechanical material properties mainly to the improvement provided by the CNT filler. There are challenging issues regarding CNTRPs such as determination of material properties, and effect of chirality and size on the mechanical material properties of carbon nanotube fibres, which warrant development of computational models. Along with the difficulties associated with experimentation on CNTs, there is paucity in the literature on the effects of chirality and size on the mechanical properties of CNTs. Insight into the aforementioned issues may be brought through computational modelling time- and cost-effectively when compared to experimentation. This study aims to investigate the effect of chirality and size of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) on its mechanical material properties so that their contribution to the mechanical properties of CNTRP composite may be understood more clearly. Nonlinear finite element models based on molecular mechanics using various element types substituting C-C bond are generated to develop zigzag, armchair and chiral SWNTs over a range of diameters. The predictions collected from simulations are compared to the experimental and computational studies available in the literature

Ethanol Production and Fuel Substitution in Pakistan Promoting Sustainable Transportation and Mitigating Climate Change

Pakistan is a developing country which is faced by the scourge of energy deficiency. The country is dependent upon the import of oil for energy as it does not have ample resources of oil. The energy crises along with the heavy costs of importing the oil, produce immense pressure on the country's economy. During the fiscal year 2012-2013, the transport sector of the country has 49.57% share in the total consumption of oil. Approximately 1794 million liters of gasoline was consumed by this sector in 2012. In this paper, the potential for ethanol production and its substitution in Pakistan is found. The results are focused on sugarcane production, demand for sugar, economic growth for the country and potential reduction in carbon emissions. Currently there is a potential of 274 million liters annual ethanol production, without affecting the production of food products from sugarcane. The transport sector can be benefited from ethanol after it is blended with gasoline under four different scenarios, which will lead to the minimization of gasoline consumption and subsequently the associated economic and environmental effects. Results indicate that the best possible blending ratio can be E8 in the present and the predicted situation. In addition to that, the usage of ethanol will add to a positive environmental impact by reducing 14.6 million tons of CO2 emissions by 2030. Finally, the substitution of ethanol over gasoline will lead to lower imports of oil products, thus reducing the cost and less draining of resources from the Pakistani economy. This method, if implemented, can provide an incentive for improved yields in sugarcane production and help develop the industrial sector. The outcomes of this paper may also be followed and similar techniques may be implemented by other developing countries having alike resources

Techno-economic analysis of energy efficiency improvement in electric motor driven systems in Swiss industry

According to its ‘Energy Strategy 2050' (case ‘new energy policy') Switzerland aims to reduce its industrial electricity demand by 25% and 35% in 2035 and 2050 respectively compared to 2010. Electric motor driven systems in Swiss industry, which currently account for approximately 69% of the sector's total electricity demand, are expected to contribute significantly to this strategy. This study assesses the potential of electricity savings for electric motor driven systems in industry and its associated specific costs and presents the results in the form of energy efficiency cost curves. For the short term, the economic potential for electricity savings in Swiss industrial electric motor systems is estimated at approximately 17%. The importance of accounting for additionality by using energy-relevant investment instead of total investment for the cost-benefit analysis in order to avoid underestimation of the economic electricity savings potential is demonstrated. The results of this analysis can serve as basis for formulating more effective policies and may also be applicable to other countries with similarly ambitious targets

A bottom-up analysis of energy efficiency improvement and CO₂ emission reduction potentials for the swiss metals sector

The Swiss metals sector, comprised of manufacturing basic metals and fabricated metal products, is responsible for nearly 14% of total final energy (TFE) demand of the Swiss industry, making it one of the major energy consuming industrial sectors. This study investigates the current potential for energy efficiency (EE) improvement and CO2 abatement in the Swiss metals sector by means of bottom-up cost curves. Based on the comparison of Specific Energy Consumption for the processes applied in the Swiss metals sector with those of the best available techniques, the maximum technical EE potential for Swiss metals sector is estimated at 19%, while the economic EE potential is in the range of 11%–15%. The corresponding economic CO2 abatement potential is estimated at 6%. Among all measures, EE improvement of the rolling process was found to have the largest potential for TFE savings in the Swiss metals sector. The detailed insight into the EE gap and techno-economically feasible EE improvement solutions for the Swiss metals sector identified in this study will help to overcome the techno-economic barriers in implementing best practices in the high value-added metals sector