Thermodynamic entropy as an indicator for urban sustainability?

As foci of economic activity, resource consumption, and the production of material waste and pollution, cities represent both a major hurdle and yet also a source of great potential for achieving the goal of sustainability. Motivated by the desire to better understand and measure sustainability in quantitative terms we explore the applicability of thermodynamic entropy to urban systems as a tool for evaluating sustainability. Having comprehensively reviewed the application of thermodynamic entropy to urban systems we argue that the role it can hope to play in characterising sustainability is limited. We show that thermodynamic entropy may be considered as a measure of energy efficiency, but must be complimented by other indices to form part of a broader measure of urban sustainability

Results of meta-analysis of GSTM1 null polymorphism.

<p>Results of meta-analysis of GSTM1 null polymorphism.</p

Results of meta-analysis of GSTP1 hypermethylation.

<p>Results of meta-analysis of GSTP1 hypermethylation.</p

Main Results of meta-analysis.

*<p>HRs and 95%CIs in the random-effect model are: 1.29(0.97, 1.71), 1.33(0.94, 1.9), 1.85(1.12, 3.06), and 1.53(0.67, 3.49) for GSTM1, GSTP1 GG vs. AA,, APC and RAR(beta), respectively.</p

Results of meta-analysis of GSTT1 null polymorphism.

<p>Results of meta-analysis of GSTT1 null polymorphism.</p

Results of meta-analysis of APC promoter hypermethylation.

<p>Results of meta-analysis of APC promoter hypermethylation.</p

Results of meta-analysis of RAR-beta hypermethylation.

<p>Results of meta-analysis of RAR-beta hypermethylation.</p

Results of meta-analysis of GSTP1 AG vs. AA polymorphism.

<p>Results of meta-analysis of GSTP1 AG vs. AA polymorphism.</p

Flow chart of literature selection.

<p>Flow chart of literature selection.</p

Characteristics of individual studies included in this meta-analysis.

<p>BCR: biochemical recurrence; Non-BCR: patients without biochemical recurrence; qmPCR: Quantitative methylation-specific PCR; reqPCR: Restriction endonuclease quantitative PCR; NA: not available.</p>*<p>Caucasian 91%, African-American 9% for BCR and Caucasian 97%, African-American 3% for Non-BCR.</p>**<p>Caucasian 82%, African-American 18% for BCR and Caucasian 82%, African-American 12%, Asian 6% for Non-BCR.</p