Differential effects of aging on spatial learning through exploratory navigation and map reading

It has been shown that abilities in spatial learning and memory are adversely affected by aging. The present study was conducted to investigate whether increasing age has equal consequences for all types of spatial learning or impacts certain types of spatial learning selectively. Specifically, two major types of spatial learning, exploratory navigation and map reading, were contrasted. By combining a neuroimaging finding that the medial temporal lobe (MTL) is especially important for exploratory navigation and a neurological finding that the MTL is susceptible to age-related atrophy, it was hypothesized that spatial learning through exploratory navigation would exhibit a greater decline in later life than spatial learning through map reading. In an experiment, young and senior participants learned locations of landmarks in virtual environments either by navigating in them in the first-person perspective or by seeing aerial views of the environments. Results showed that senior participants acquired less accurate memories of the layouts of landmarks than young participants when they navigated in the environments, but the two groups did not differ in spatial learning performance when they viewed the environments from the aerial perspective. These results suggest that spatial learning through exploratory navigation is particularly vulnerable to adverse effects of aging, whereas elderly adults may be able to maintain their map reading skills relatively well

The Effects of Path Crossover on Spatial Orientation

Prior research has discovered that when an individual’s path has a crossover, there seems to be a significant deterioration in the individual’s spatial orientation.https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/u_poster_2012/1001/thumbnail.jp

Passing distance, speed and perceived risks to the cyclist and driver in passing events

Many studies have examined the level of risk perceived by cyclists when they are being passed by motor vehicles (e.g., Beck et al., 2021; Rasch et al., 2022) and others have reported that drivers with negative attitudes towards cyclists self-report higher levels of driver aggression towards cyclists (e.g., Delbosc et al., 2019; Fruhen & Flin, 2015; Haworth et al., 2018). However, self-reported behaviours may not reflect a driver's observable behaviour (Fruhen et al., 2019). Lamondia and Duthie (2012) proposed that LPD is an indicator of the driver's degree of respect for a cyclist but other driver factors may also be important. Little is known about how accurately drivers canjudge lateral passing distance (Haworth et al., 2018) or whether some unsafe passes could simply reflect poor driver understanding of cyclist needs when sharing roadways. The general finding that LPDs are lower when there are parked cars or oncoming vehicles (Rubie et al., 2020), suggests that drivers may leave inadequate LPDs if they perceive that moving into the opposite side of the road poses a risk to themselves or their vehicle. Rasch et al. (2022) is one of the few studies to measure drivers' perceptions of the risk to themselves in overtaking cyclists. Some studies have examined how different motor vehicle speeds influence perceived risk of the passing motor vehicle for cyclists (Apasnore et al., 2017; Garcia et al., 2020; Llorca et al., 2017; Rasch et al., 2022) or drivers (Rasch et al., 2022), generally finding that cyclists perceive higher motor vehicle speeds are more hazardous. This paper examines (1) whether negative attitudes towards cyclists influence perceptions ofrisk: to the cyclist in passing events, (2) the factors associated with driver perceptions of the risk to themselves, and (3) if increases in motor vehicle speed are associated with higher levels of perceived risk to the cyclist and driver in the passing event. [From: Introduction

A Reverse Stroop Task With Mouse Tracking

© 2016 Yamamoto, Incera and McLennan. In a reverse Stroop task, observers respond to the meaning of a color word irrespective of the color in which the word is printed-for example, the word red may be printed in the congruent color (red), an incongruent color (e.g., blue), or a neutral color (e.g., white). Although reading of color words in this task is often thought to be neither facilitated by congruent print colors nor interfered with incongruent print colors, this interference has been detected by using a response method that does not give any bias in favor of processing of word meanings or processing of print colors. On the other hand, evidence for the presence of facilitation in this task has been scarce, even though this facilitation is theoretically possible. By modifying the task such that participants respond to a stimulus color word by pointing to a corresponding response word on a computer screen with a mouse, the present study investigated the possibility that not only interference but also facilitation would take place in a reverse Stroop task. Importantly, in this study, participants\u27 responses were dynamically tracked by recording the entire trajectories of the mouse. Arguably, this method provided richer information about participants\u27 performance than traditional measures such as reaction time and accuracy, allowing for more detailed (and thus potentially more sensitive) investigation of facilitation and interference in the reverse Stroop task. These trajectories showed that the mouse\u27s approach toward correct response words was significantly delayed by incongruent print colors but not affected by congruent print colors, demonstrating that only interference, not facilitation, was present in the current task. Implications of these findings are discussed within a theoretical framework in which the strength of association between a task and its response method plays a critical role in determining how word meanings and print colors interact in reverse Stroop tasks

DeFINE: Delayed Feedback based Immersive Navigation Environment for Studying Goal-Directed Human Navigation

With the advent of consumer-grade products for presenting an immersive virtual environment (VE), there is a growing interest in utilizing VEs for testing human navigation behavior. However, preparing a VE still requires a high level of technical expertise in computer graphics and virtual reality, posing a significant hurdle to embracing the emerging technology. To address this issue, this paper presents Delayed Feedback based Immersive Navigation Environment (DeFINE), a framework that allows for easy creation and administration of navigation tasks within customizable VEs via intuitive graphical user interfaces and simple settings files. Importantly, DeFINE has a built-in capability to provide performance feedback to participants during an experiment, a feature that is critically missing in other similar frameworks. To show the usability of DeFINE from both experimentalists' and participants' perspectives, a demonstration was made in which participants navigated to a hidden goal location with feedback that differentially weighted speed and accuracy of their responses. In addition, the participants evaluated DeFINE in terms of its ease of use, required workload, and proneness to induce cybersickness. The demonstration exemplified typical experimental manipulations DeFINE accommodates and what types of data it can collect for characterizing participants' task performance. With its out-of-the-box functionality and potential customizability due to open-source licensing, DeFINE makes VEs more accessible to many researchers.Comment: 43 pages, 10 figures, 5 tables, Submitted to Behavioral Research Method

Homing by Path Integration When a Locomotion Trajectory Crosses Itself

Path integration is a process with which navigators derive their current position and orientation by integrating self-motion signals along a locomotion trajectory. It has been suggested that path integration becomes disproportionately erroneous when the trajectory crosses itself. However, there is a possibility that this previous finding was confounded by effects of the length of a traveled path and the amount of turns experienced along the path, two factors that are known to affect path integration performance. The present study was designed to investigate whether the crossover of a locomotion trajectory truly increases errors of path integration. In an experiment, blindfolded human navigators were guided along four paths that varied in their lengths and turns, and attempted to walk directly back to the beginning of the paths. Only one of the four paths contained a crossover. Results showed that errors yielded from the path containing the crossover were not always larger than those observed in other paths, and the errors were attributed solely to the effects of longer path lengths or greater degrees of turns. These results demonstrated that path crossover does not always cause significant disruption in path integration processes. Implications of the present findings for models of path integration are discussed

The role of active locomotion in space perception

It has been shown that active control of locomotion increases accuracy and precision of nonvisual space perception, but psychological mechanisms of this enhancement are poorly understood. The present study explored a hypothesis that active control of locomotion enhances space perception by facilitating crossmodal interaction between visual and nonvisual spatial information. In an experiment, blindfolded participants walked along a linear path under one of the following two conditions: (1) They walked by themselves following a guide rope; and (2) they were led by an experimenter. Subsequently, they indicated the walked distance by tossing a beanbag to the origin of locomotion. The former condition gave participants greater control of their locomotion, and thus represented a more active walking condition. In addition, before each trial, half the participants viewed the room in which they performed the distance perception task. The other half remained blindfolded throughout the experiment. Results showed that although the room was devoid of any particular cues for walked distances, visual knowledge of the surroundings improved the precision of nonvisual distance perception. Importantly, however, the benefit of preview was observed only when participants walked more actively. This indicates that active control of locomotion allowed participants to better utilize their visual memory of the environment for perceiving nonvisually encoded distance, suggesting that active control of locomotion served as a catalyst for integrating visual and nonvisual information to derive spatial representations of higher quality

Path information effects in visual and proprioceptive spatial learning

Objects in an environment are often encountered sequentially during spatial learning, forming a path along which object locations are experienced. The present study investigated the effect of spatial information conveyed through the path in visual and proprioceptive learning of a room-sized spatial layout, exploring whether different modalities differentially depend on the integrity of the path. Learning object locations along a coherent path was compared with learning them in a spatially random manner. Path integrity had little effect on visual learning, whereas learning with the coherent path produced better memory performance than random order learning for proprioceptive learning. These results suggest that path information has differential effects in visual and proprioceptive spatial learning, perhaps due to a difference in the way one establishes a reference frame for representing relative locations of objects

Peripheral vision benefits spatial learning by guiding eye movements

Free to read at publisher The loss of peripheral vision impairs spatial learning and navigation. However, the mechanisms underlying these impairments remain poorly understood. One advantage of having peripheral vision is that objects in an environment are easily detected and readily foveated via eye movements. The present study examined this potential benefit of peripheral vision by investigating whether competent performance in spatial learning requires effective eye movements. In Experiment 1, participants learned room-sized spatial layouts with or without restriction on direct eye movements to objects. Eye movements were restricted by having participants view the objects through small apertures in front of their eyes. Results showed that impeding effective eye movements made subsequent retrieval of spatial memory slower and less accurate. The small apertures also occluded much of the environmental surroundings, but the importance of this kind of occlusion was ruled out in Experiment 2 by showing that participants exhibited intact learning of the same spatial layouts when luminescent objects were viewed in an otherwise dark room. Together, these findings suggest that one of the roles of peripheral vision in spatial learning is to guide eye movements, highlighting the importance of spatial information derived from eye movements for learning environmental layouts

Visual and proprioceptive representations in spatial memory

It has been shown that spatial information can be acquired from both visual and nonvisual modalities. The present study explored how spatial information from vision and proprioception was represented in memory, investigating orientation dependence of spatial memories acquired through visual and proprioceptive spatial learning. Experiment 1 examined whether visual learning alone and proprioceptive learning alone yielded orientation-dependent spatial memory. Results showed that spatial memories from both types of learning were orientation dependent. Experiment 2 explored how different orientations of the same environment were represented when they were learned visually and proprioceptively. Results showed that both visually and proprioceptively learned orientations were represented in spatial memory, suggesting that participants established two different reference systems based on each type of learning experience and interpreted the environment in terms of these two reference systems. The results provide some initial clues to how different modalities make unique contributions to spatial representations