A Novel Mathematical Equation For Calculating The Number of ATP Molecules Generated From Sugars In Cells

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is critical for all life from the simplest to the most complex. All organisms from the microscopic to humans utilize ATP as the source for their primary energy currency. This manuscript describes a novel method to calculate the number of ATP molecules generated from the consumption of any sugar (having 3-7 carbons). This calculation method based on the oxidation states of the sugar’s carbons. The time needed to calculate the number of ATP molecules by this method is less than 2 minutes whereas that required by the current (regular) method is many hours and even days in some cases. In addition, the current method requires drawing all biochemical processes that the sugar undergoes upon its cellular respiration (oxidation) while our method described herein does not

Kamus Bahasa Indonesia-Kulawi

This review supplies the reader with a detailed overview on the utilization of intramolecular processes for a design and synthesis of prodrugs. It is well known that a respected number of drugs suffer from low bioavailability, toxicity, unpleasant taste and presystemic first-pass metabolism which result in drug inactivation. The classical prodrug approach in which the linkage attaching the parent drug to its non-toxic linker and cleaved by in vivo enzyme’s catalyzed reactions has proven its success in solving toxicity and bioavailability related issues. On the other hand, prodrugs based on chemical interconversion in which the prodrug releases the corresponding active parent drug via inter or intramolecular chemical process in the absence of an enzyme is considered as a better alternative approach since the prodrug cleavage is not dependent in the efficiency or quantity of the enzyme catalyzes the interconversion of the prodrug. Examples of successful prodrugs using the chemical approach via intramolecular processes such as cyclization reactions are illustrated as well. In addition, another part of this review is devoted to cover reported studies on enzyme models and their utilization for the design and synthesis of a variety of novel prodrugs. In this approach, computational calculations using DFT and MM methods were exploited and correlations between experimentally determined and computed values of the rate-limiting step in the studied intramolecular processes were utilized in the prodrugs design. Selected examples of the designed prodrugs include aza-nucleosides for the treatment of myelodysplastic syndromes, the anti-Parkinson’s agent dopamine, the anti-viral acyclovir, the anti-malarial atovaquone, and statins for lowering cholesterol levels in the blood, the antihypertensive atenolol, the antibacterial cefuroxime, the anti-bleeding tranexamic acid, the decongestant phenylephrine, and the pain killer paracetamol

Intramolecular Processes and Their Applications in Prodrugs Approaches- Experimental and Computational Studies

This review supplies the reader with a detailed overview on the utilization of intramolecular processes for a design and synthesis of prodrugs. It is well known that a respected number of drugs suffer from low bioavailability, toxicity, unpleasant taste and presystemic first-pass metabolism which result in drug inactivation. The classical prodrug approach in which the linkage attaching the parent drug to its non-toxic linker and cleaved by in vivo enzyme’s catalyzed reactions has proven its success in solving toxicity and bioavailability related issues. On the other hand, prodrugs based on chemical interconversion in which the prodrug releases the corresponding active parent drug via inter or intramolecular chemical process in the absence of an enzyme is considered as a better alternative approach since the prodrug cleavage is not dependent in the efficiency or quantity of the enzyme catalyzes the interconversion of the prodrug. Examples of successful prodrugs using the chemical approach via intramolecular processes such as cyclization reactions are illustrated as well. In addition, another part of this review is devoted to cover reported studies on enzyme models and their utilization for the design and synthesis of a variety of novel prodrugs. In this approach, computational calculations using DFT and MM methods were exploited and correlations between experimentally determined and computed values of the rate-limiting step in the studied intramolecular processes were utilized in the prodrugs design. Selected examples of the designed prodrugs include aza-nucleosides for the treatment of myelodysplastic syndromes, the anti-Parkinson’s agent dopamine, the anti-viral acyclovir, the anti-malarial atovaquone, and statins for lowering cholesterol levels in the blood, the antihypertensive atenolol, the antibacterial cefuroxime, the anti-bleeding tranexamic acid, the decongestant phenylephrine, and the pain killer paracetamol

Dopamine and Levodopa Prodrugs for the Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease

Background: Parkinson’s disease is an aggressive and progressive neurodegenerative disorder that depletes dopamine (DA) in the central nervous system. Dopamine replacement therapy, mainly through actual dopamine and its original prodrug L-dopa (LD), faces many challenges such as poor blood brain barrier penetration and decreased response to therapy with time. Methods: The prodrugs described herein are ester, amide, dimeric amide, carrier-mediated, peptide transport-mediated, cyclic, chemical delivery systems and enzyme-models prodrugs designed and made by chemical means, and their bioavailability was studied in animals. Results: A promising ester prodrug for intranasal delivery has been developed. LD methyl ester is currently in Phase III clinical trials. A series of amide prodrugs were synthesized with better stability than ester prodrugs. Both amide and dimeric amide prodrugs offer enhanced blood brain barrier (BBB) penetration and better pharmacokinetics. Attaching LD to sugars has been used to exploit glucose transport mechanisms into the brain. Conclusions: Till now, no DA prodrug has reached the pharmaceutical market, nevertheless, the future of utilizing prodrugs for the treatment of PD seems to be bright. For instance, LD ester prodrugs have demonstrated an adequate intranasal delivery of LD, thus enabling the absorption of therapeutic agents to the brain. Most of the amide, cyclic, peptidyl or chemical delivery systems of DA prodrugs demonstrated enhanced pharmacokinetic properties

Fregoli Syndrome In Parkinson’s Disease

Scientific BACKGROUND: The Fregoli syndrome is the delusional belief that one or more familiar persons, persecutors following the patients, repeatedly change their appearance. This condition involves the belief that a person who appears familiar to the patient is really impersonating and taking on the apperance of a stranger in the patient’s environment. Fregoli syndrome may occur without obvious neuropathology. In literature, it is described associated with various pyschiatric and neurologic disorders. This syndrome has often been discussed as a variant of the Capgras syndrome in literature, but these two syndromes have different phenomological structures and neuropsychological findings. CASE: We reported a case of Parkinson’s disease presenting with Fregoli syndrome that is described and the neurobiological basis of the syndrome, the finding of the neuropsychological investigations are discussed in the light of current literature. CONCLUSION: Extensive neuropsychological testing demonstrated significant deficits in executive functions, visuospatial and attentional skills. The patient’s neuropsychological profile, especially executive deficits may account for case of Fregoli syndrome associated with Parkinson’s diseas

Relations between homocysteine, folate and vitamin B12 in vascular dementia and in Alzheimer disease

Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between homocysteine (Hey), folate and vitamin B 12 levels in vascular dementia (VaD) and Alzheimer Disease (AD) to elucidate if they had similar pathogenesis due to cerebrovascular injury

A case of sarcoidosis of the central nervous system and orbita.

Sarcoidosis is a multisystemic disease characterized by granulomatous inflammation. Lung or lymph node involvement is common. We present a rare case of sarcoidosis that began with orbital involvement, and a month later, due to insufficient treatment, it involved the central nervous system. A 49-year-old female patient began suffering from swelling in her right eye, redness, ptosis, and limited eye movements two months ago. Gadolinium-enhanced orbital magnetic resonance imaging showed thickening of the lacrimal gland and the right medial rectus muscle. After three weeks of local antibiotic and steroid treatments, her symptoms were resolved. One month ago, the patient reported sudden weakness in her right arm and leg. After laboratory tests and imaging studies, the patient was diagnosed with probable neurosarcoidosis using the Zajicek criteria and treated with prednisone (1 mg/kg/day). Although sarcoidosis frequently presents with lung and lymph node involvement, it is rarely accompanied by orbital involvement. Patients with orbital symptoms may receive a late diagnosis and insufficient central nervous system treatment. Involvement of the central nervous system in sarcoidosis leads to high morbidity and mortality rates. Therefore, early diagnosis and treatment are very important