A Complete Real-World Theory of Language Should Explain How Iconicity Remains a Stable Property of Linguistic Systems

Murgiano et al. make a compelling case for studying iconicity in multimodal face-to-face interaction, but they appear ambivalent about the importance of iconicity at the level of the linguistic system. We argue that, rather than decreasing over time, iconicity is a stable property of languages. Understanding how and why this is so is critical to building a complete real-world theory of language that bridges the situated context of language use with language as an evolving symbolic system. An important point for future research is to examine the interface between iconic prosody and the latent iconic features of words and signs that are frozen in the linguistic system

Interfaces between language and cognition: metaphor, iconicity, and multimodal numerical communication

This thesis explores metaphor, iconicity, and multimodal numerical communication, and their connection to the cognitive processes that are involved in language comprehension and production. Focusing on the English language, this thesis discusses the idea that linguistic metaphors reflect deeper conceptualisations of the world, which are expressed multimodally through metaphoric and iconic gesture, prosody, and vocalization. It also studies the representation of these metaphors in cultural artifacts, like line graphs, and how these representations can make data visualizations easier to comprehend. By focusing on number metaphors and then expanding its scope to include numerical communication more broadly, this thesis explores how communication about numbers reflects numerical cognition. It also argues that sensorimotor simulation motivates iconic and metaphoric expression in different modalities, and discusses the implications of this argument for language evolution. By synthesising insights from a wide range of research areas and methodologies from across the spectrum of linguistics, cognitive science, and psychology, this thesis demonstrates that metaphor, iconicity, and multimodal numerical communication are interfaces between language and cognition

Degrees of metaphoricity: a quantitative gesture analysis

When a speaker uses a linguistic metaphor, how do we know that they are thinking metaphorically? One answer is by looking at their gestures (e.g., Müller, 2008). In this thesis, I propose three criteria for identifying whether a speaker is thinking metaphorically: gesture cooccurrence, gestural fit and gestural effort (see Hostetter & Alibali, 2008). I also appeal to Müller’s (2008) conception of metaphoricity as a gradable phenomenon. Using these three criteria, I conduct a large-scale, quantitative analysis of gestures in the TV News Archive, focusing on linguistic metaphors of emotional valence (‘low standards, ‘high standards’, ‘lower the standards’, ‘raise the standards’). I also look at factors that may affect the metaphoric activation of these linguistic metaphors, and whether speakers gesture in line with other conceptual metaphors of emotional valence (e.g., Casasanto, 2009). Finally, I look at whether articulatory plurality, a widely-reported feature of sign languages (e.g., Börstell et al., 2016c), can be found in co-speech gestures. Amongst other results, I find high levels of gesture co-occurrence (85.3%), gestural fit (61.5%) and gestural effort (70.8%) for all four linguistic metaphors. I also find that metaphorical verbs (‘lower’, ‘raise’) are more likely to be understood metaphorically than metaphorical adjectives (‘low’, ‘high’)

Placing Abstract Concepts in Space:Quantity, Time and Emotional Valence

Research has shown that abstract concepts are often conceptualized along horizontal and vertical axes. However, there are mixed results concerning which axis is preferred for which type of conceptual domain. For instance, it has been suggested that the vertical axis may be preferred for quantity in tasks using linguistic stimuli (e.g., ‘more,’ ‘less’), whereas numerals (e.g., ‘1,’ ‘2,’ ‘3’) may be more prone to horizontal conceptualization. In this study, we used a task with free response options to see where participants would place quantity words (‘most,’ ‘more,’ ‘less,’ ‘least’), numerals (‘2,’ ‘4,’ ‘7,’ ‘9’), time words (‘past,’ ‘future,’ ‘earliest,’ ‘earlier,’ ‘later,’ ‘latest’) and emotional valence words (‘best,’ ‘better,’ ‘worse,’ ‘worst’). We find that for quantity words, the vertical axis was preferred; whereas for numerals, participants preferred the horizontal axis. For time concepts, participants preferred the horizontal axis; and for emotional valence, they preferred the vertical axis. Across all tasks, participants tended to use specific axes (horizontal, vertical), rather than combining these two axes in diagonal responses. These results shed light on the spatial nature of abstract thought

Consensus Paper: Current Perspectives on Abstract Concepts and Future Research Directions

Abstract concepts are relevant to a wide range of disciplines, including cognitive science, linguistics, psychology, cognitive, social, and affective neuroscience, and philosophy. This consensus paper synthesizes the work and views of researchers in the field, discussing current perspectives on theoretical and methodological issues, and recommendations for future research. In this paper, we urge researchers to go beyond the traditional abstract-concrete dichotomy and consider the multiple dimensions that characterize concepts (e.g., sensorimotor experience, social interaction, conceptual metaphor), as well as the mediating influence of linguistic and cultural context on conceptual representations. We also promote the use of interactive methods to investigate both the comprehension and production of abstract concepts, while also focusing on individual differences in conceptual representations. Overall, we argue that abstract concepts should be studied in a more nuanced way that takes into account their complexity and diversity, which should permit us a fuller, more holistic understanding of abstract cognition

Examining the generalizability of research findings from archival data

This initiative examined systematically the extent to which a large set of archival research findings generalizes across contexts. We repeated the key analyses for 29 original strategic management effects in the same context (direct reproduction) as well as in 52 novel time periods and geographies; 45% of the reproductions returned results matching the original reports together with 55% of tests in different spans of years and 40% of tests in novel geographies. Some original findings were associated with multiple new tests. Reproducibility was the best predictor of generalizability—for the findings that proved directly reproducible, 84% emerged in other available time periods and 57% emerged in other geographies. Overall, only limited empirical evidence emerged for context sensitivity. In a forecasting survey, independent scientists were able to anticipate which effects would find support in tests in new samples

'Tiny numbers' are actually tiny: Evidence from gestures in the TV News Archive.

We report a large-scale, quantitative investigation of manual gestures that speakers perform when speaking metaphorically about numerical quantities. We used the TV News Archive-an online database of over 2 million English language news broadcasts-to examine 681 videos in which 584 speakers used the phrase 'tiny number', 'small number', 'large number', or 'huge number', which metaphorically frame numerical quantity in terms of physical size. We found that the gestures speakers used reflect a number of different strategies to express the metaphoric size of quantities. When referring to greater versus lesser quantities, speakers were far more likely to gesture (1) with an open versus closed hand configuration, (2) with an outward versus inward movement, and (3) with a wider distance between the gesturing hands. These patterns were often more pronounced for the phrases containing more extreme adjectives ('tiny/huge number'). However, we did not find that speakers performed two-handed versus one-handed gestures. Nor did we find that speakers performed right-handed versus left-handed gestures, when referring to greater versus lesser quantities. Overall, this work supports the claim that metaphoric thought is involved in the production of verbal metaphors that describe numerical magnitudes. It demonstrates that size-based numerical associations observed in previous lab experiments are active in real-life communication outside the lab