What a Difference Trade Makes - Export Activity and the Flexibility of Collective Bargaining Agreements

The prevalence of opening clauses in collective bargaining agreements may indicate a tendency to a higher decentralised wage settlement. Increasing competition on international product markets is assumed to be one reason for wage-setting decentralisation, whereas theoretical explanations focus currently on the change of production structure and the impact of exogenous shocks. Incorporating stylised facts about exporting firms, new trade models suggest a different way of adjustment to increasing competition depending on a firm's nature. While the most productive exporters expand into new markets, small, less productive non-exporters are threatened by import competition. Based on the model from Bernard et al. (2003), we apply the theoretical implications to explain why decentralisation in bargaining may arise. We examine in a second step whether small, less productive, non-exporting firms paying low average wages, possess a higher propensity to use opening clauses than more productive, large exporters with a high wage level. Based on IAB Establishment Data covering the German Manufacturing, our results indicate that firms exporting to EMU countries -- but not exporters in general -- have a lower propensity of using opening clauses than non-exporters. However, inconsistent with theory, slight evidence suggests a rising propensity with increasing firm size and increasing wage level.trade model;opening clauses; collective bargaining;

What a difference trade makes: Export activity and the flexibility of collective bargaining agreements

"The prevalence of opening clauses in collective bargaining agreements may indicate a tendency towards more decentralised wage setting. Increasing competition on international product markets is assumed to be one reason for the decentralisation of collective bargaining. Current theoretical explanations focus merely on firm-level differences in the exposure to international competition. Unlike non-exporting firms, exporters are assumed to be exposed to international competition and are therefore in need of greater wage flexibility. However, incorporating stylised facts about exporting firms, new theoretical trade models suggest that firms differ from each other in how they adjust to increasing competition depending on their export behaviour as a measure of productivity. While large, highly productive exporters expand into new markets, small, low-productive non-exporters are threatened by import competition. Based on a trade model by Bernard et al. (2003), we are able to explain verbally how a decentralisation of wage bargaining arises due to different labour demand reactions of exporters and non-exporters. In contrast to the result assuming differences in the exposure to international competition, we find non-exporters to require greater wage flexibility. As the introduction of opening clauses increases wage flexibility at firm level, we examine empirically whether exporters or non-exporters have a higher probability of using opening clauses. Based on IAB establishment data covering the western German manufacturing sector, our results suggest that firms exporting to EMU countries - but not exporters in general - have a lower propensity for using opening clauses than non-exporters." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en)) Additional Information Kurzfassung (deutsch) Executive summary (English)Tarifvertrag, Öffnungsklausel, Tarifverhandlungen, Dezentralisation, internationaler Wettbewerb, Wettbewerbsfähigkeit, Lohnflexibilität, IAB-Betriebspanel, verarbeitendes Gewerbe, Außenhandel, Export - Auswirkungen, Westdeutschland, Bundesrepublik Deutschland

What a Difference Trade Makes - Export Activity and the Flexibility of Collective Bargaining Agreements

The prevalence of opening clauses in collective bargaining agreements may indicate a tendency to a higher decentralised wage settlement. Increasing competition on international product markets is assumed to be one reason for wage-setting decentralisation, whereas theoretical explanations focus currently on the change of production structure and the impact of exogenous shocks. Incorporating stylised facts about exporting firms, new trade models suggest a different way of adjustment to increasing competition depending on a firm's nature. While the most productive exporters expand into new markets, small, less productive non-exporters are threatened by import competition. Based on the model from Bernard et al. (2003), we apply the theoretical implications to explain why decentralisation in bargaining may arise. We examine in a second step whether small, less productive, non-exporting firms paying low average wages, possess a higher propensity to use opening clauses than more productive, large exporters with a high wage level. Based on IAB Establishment Data covering the German Manufacturing, our results indicate that firms exporting to EMU countries -- but not exporters in general -- have a lower propensity of using opening clauses than non-exporters. However, inconsistent with theory, slight evidence suggests a rising propensity with increasing firm size and increasing wage level.trade model;opening clauses; collective bargaining;

Typisierung der Tarifvertragslandschaft : eine Clusteranalyse der tarifvertraglichen Öffnungsklauseln

Tarifvertragliche Öffnungs- und Härtefallklauseln, die es Betrieben ermöglichen, von den Standards der Flächentarifverträge abzuweichen, haben in den vergangenen 15 Jahren starke Verbreitung gefunden. Die ökonomische Idee eines einheitlichen Branchentarifvertrags ist für einige Wirtschaftszweige nicht mehr haltbar, da die Unterschiede zwischen einzelnen Tarifbereichen ein und derselben Branche hinsichtlich der tarifvertraglichen Flexibilisierung zugenommen haben. Der Beitrag verwendet den IAW-Öffnungsklauseldatensatz, der differenzierte Informationen über tarifliche Öffnungs- und Härtefallklauseln bereit hält. Mit Hilfe von Korrespondenz- und Clusteranalyse werden erstmals sieben Gruppen von Tarifbereichen identifiziert, die sich in der Art der tariflichvertraglichen Öffnung unterscheiden. Die zeitliche Betrachtung der sieben Gruppen in den Jahren 1991 bis 2004 stellt typische Entwicklungspfade tariflicher Flexibilisierungsmöglichkeiten dar. Die Verknüpfung der Ergebnisse mit der Verdienststrukturerhebung 1995 und 2001 ermöglicht es zudem, die Bedeutung der Tarifbereichstypen für die Beschäftigten und Branchen des Produzierenden Gewerbes aufzuzeigen.The introduction of opening clauses in collective wage agreements allowing firms to deviate from their collective bargaining agreements has become widely accepted for the last fifteen years. With respect to the flexibility agreed through collective bargaining, the distinctions between single collective bargaining areas of the same industry have increased. Hence, the economic idea of uniform industry-wide central collective bargaining agreements is no longer tenable. The data set of the IAW used in this article provides differentiated information about opening clauses in collective wage agreements. By means of correspondence and cluster analysis, seven groups of collective bargaining areas are identified, which differ in the type of opening clauses introduced. Over the period from 1991 until 2004, the examination of dynamic aspects of these seven groups exhibits typical paths of development towards an improved flexibility agreed through collective bargaining. Furthermore, the conjunction of the data set with the German Structure of Earnings Survey of the years 1995 and 2001 makes it possible to show the relevance of the different types of single collective bargaining areas for employment and industries of the German manufacturing sector

What a difference trade makes : export activity and the flexibility of collective bargaining agreements

The prevalence of opening clauses in collective bargaining agreements may indicate a tendency to a higher decentralised wage settlement. Increasing competition on international product markets is assumed to be one reason for wage-setting decentralisation, whereas theoretical explanations focus currently on the change of production structure and the impact of exogenous shocks. Incorporating stylised facts about exporting firms, new trade models suggest a different way of adjustment to increasing competition depending on a firm?s nature. While the most productive exporters expand into new markets, small, less productive non-exporters are threatened by import competition. Based on the model from Bernard et al. (2003), we apply the theoretical implications to explain why decentralisation in bargaining may arise. We examine in a second step whether small, less productive, non-exporting firms paying low average wages, possess a higher propensity to use opening clauses than more productive, large exporters with a high wage level. Based on IAB Establishment Data covering the German Manufacturing, our results indicate that firms exporting to EMU countries ? but not exporters in general ? have a lower propensity of using opening clauses than non-exporters. However, inconsistent with theory, slight evidence suggests a rising propensity with increasing firm size and increasing wage level.Die zunehmende Verbreitung von tarifvertraglichen Öffnungsklauseln stellt tendenziell eine Verlagerung der tariflichen Lohnsetzung auf die Betriebsebene dar, die häufig mit steigendem internationalen Wettbewerb auf den Gütermärkten begründet wird. Bisherige theoretische Ansätze führen diese Dezentralisierungstendenzen vor allem auf eine wachsende Heterogenität der Betriebe hinsichtlich ihrer Produktionsstruktur und der Betroffenheit von exogenen Schocks zurück. Neue Außenhandelsmodelle, die stilisierte Fakten zu betrieblichen Unterschieden zwischen Exporteuren und Nicht-Exporteuren berücksichtigen, weisen hingegen auf eine verschiedenartige Anpassung von Betrieben an den steigenden Wettbewerb hin. Während sehr produktive Exporteure in neue Märkte expandieren, gefährden Importkonkurrenten in stärkerem Maße die weitere Existenz von nicht exporttätigen Betrieben mit geringer Produktivität. Wir verwenden Implikationen des Modells von Bernard et al. (2003), um zu zeigen, wie eine Dezentralisierung der tariflichen Lohnsetzung ausgelöst werden kann. Im Weiteren untersuchen wir empirisch, ob kleine, wenig produktive, nicht exporttätige Betriebe mit geringem betrieblichen Lohnniveau eine höhere Neigung besitzen, Öffnungsklauseln anzuwenden als sehr produktive, große Exporteure mit hohem Lohnniveau. Die Ergebnisse von Logit-Schätzungen auf Basis des IAB-Betriebspanels und zusätzlichen Informationen über die Verbreitung von Öffnungsklauseln lassen vermuten, dass Betriebe, die in EWU-Länder exportieren, eine geringere Wahrscheinlichkeit besitzen, Öffnungsklauseln anzuwenden als nicht exportierende Betriebe. Entgegen der theoretischen Grundlage gibt es jedoch Anzeichen dafür, dass sich die Anwendungsneigung mit steigender Betriebsgröße und wachsendem Lohnniveau erhöht

Züchterische Weiterentwicklung samenfester Brokkolisorten für den Ökolandbau hinsichtlich agronomischer wie sensorischer Merkmale

Starting from identified breeding populations of broccoli, new open-pollinated broccoli varieties (OP varieties) are to be developed by means of two intensive individual selection steps with progeny testing in an on-farm approach. These new varieties are to meet the demands of organic vegetable production. To achieve this, agronomic characteristics such as yield stability, uniformity, short harvesting period, sufficient firmness of the head are sought after, coupled with good sensory characteristics and high amounts of bioactive substances beneficial to health and excellent taste

Typisierung der Tarifvertragslandschaft. Eine Clusteranalyse der tarifvertraglichen Öffnungsklauseln

Tarifvertragliche Öffnungs- und Härtefallklauseln, die es Betrieben ermöglichen, von den Standards der Flächentarifverträge abzuweichen, haben in den vergangenen 15 Jahren starke Verbreitung gefunden. Die ökonomische Idee eines einheitlichen Branchentarifvertrags ist für einige Wirtschaftszweige nicht mehr haltbar, da die Unterschiede zwischen einzelnen Tarifbereichen ein und derselben Branche hinsichtlich der tarifvertraglichen Flexibilisierung zugenommen haben. Der Beitrag verwendet den IAW-Öffnungsklauseldatensatz, der differenzierte Informationen über tarifliche Öffnungs- und Härtefallklauseln bereit hält. Mit Hilfe von Korrespondenz- und Clusteranalyse werden erstmals sieben Gruppen von Tarifbereichen identifiziert, die sich in der Art der tariflichvertraglichen Öffnung unterscheiden. Die zeitliche Betrachtung der sieben Gruppen in den Jahren 1991 bis 2004 stellt typische Entwicklungspfade tariflicher Flexibilisierungsmöglichkeiten dar. Die Verknüpfung der Ergebnisse mit der Verdienststrukturerhebung 1995 und 2001 ermöglicht es zudem, die Bedeutung der Tarifbereichstypen für die Beschäftigten und Branchen des Produzierenden Gewerbes aufzuzeigen.Öffnungsklauseln, Tarifverträge, Clusteranalyse, Korrespondenzanalyse

Retrotransposons and germ cells: reproduction, death, and diversity

The evolutionary success of retrotransposable elements is reflected by their abundance in mammalian genomes. To restrict their further advance, a number of defence mechanisms have been put in place by the host. These seem to be particularly effective in the germ line while somatic lineages might be more permissive to new insertions, as recent work by Kano and colleagues suggests

Intracarotid administration of human bone marrow mononuclear cells in rat photothrombotic ischemia

Background: Increasing evidence suggests that cell therapy improves functional recovery in experimental models of stroke and myocardial infarction. So far only small pilot trials tested the effects of cell therapy in stroke patients, whereas large clinical trials were conducted in patients with ischemic heart disease. To investigate the therapeutic benefit of cell therapy to improve the recovery after stroke, we determined the efficacy of bone marrow derived mononuclear cells, which were shown to improve the recovery in experimental and clinical acute myocardial infarction studies, in a rat stroke model. Methods: Adult male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to receive either five million human bone marrow mononuclear cells (hBMC) or placebo intraarterially 3 days after photothrombotic ischemia. For immunosuppression the animals received daily injections of cyclosporine throughout the experiment, commencing 24 hours before the cell transplantation. A battery of behavioural tests was performed before and up to 4 weeks after ischemia. Results: Body temperature and body weight revealed no difference between groups. Neurological deficits measured by the Rotarod test, the adhesive-removal test and the cylinder test were not improved by hBMC transplantation compared to placebo. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that hBMC do not improve functional recovery when transplanted intraaterially 3 days after the onset of focal cerebral ischemia. A possible reason for the failed neurological improvement after cell therapy might be the delayed treatment initiation compared to other experimental stroke studies that showed efficacy of bone marrow mononuclear cells