Dispergieren von Carbon Nanotubes in elastomeren Werkstoffen : Eigenschaften der Nanokomposite

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Blending proteins in high moisture extrusion to design meat analogues: Rheological properties, morphology development and product properties

High moisture extrusion (HME) of meat analogues is often performed with raw materials containing multiple components, e.g., blends of different protein-rich raw materials. For instance, blends of soy protein isolate (SPI) and another component, such as wheat gluten, are used particularly frequently. The positive effect of blending on product texture is well known but not yet well understood. Therefore, this work targets investigating the influence of blending in HME at a mechanistic level. For this, SPI and a model protein, whey protein concentrate (WPC), were blended at three different ratios (100:0, 85:15, 70:30) and extruded at typical HME conditions (55% water content, 115/125/133 °C material temperature). Process conditions, rheological properties, morphology development, product structure and product texture were analysed. With increasing WPC percentage, the anisotropic structures became more pronounced and the anisotropy index (AI) higher. The achieved AI from the extrudates with a ratio of 70:30 (SPI:WPC) were considerably higher than comparable extrudates reported in other studies. In all extrudates, a multiphase system was visible whose morphology had changed due to the WPC addition. The WPC led to the formation of a much smaller dispersed phase compared to the overlying multiphase structure, the size of which depends on the thermomechanical stresses. These findings demonstrate that targeted mixing of protein-rich raw materials could be a promising method to tailor the texture of extruded meat analogues

High Moisture Extrusion of Soy Protein: Investigations on the Formation of Anisotropic Product Structure

The high moisture extrusion of plant proteins is well suited for the production of protein-rich products that imitate meat in their structure and texture. The desired anisotropic product structure of these meat analogues is achieved by extrusion at high moisture content (>40%) and elevated temperatures (>100 °C); a cooling die prevents expansion of the matrix and facilitates the formation of the anisotropic structure. Although there are many studies focusing on this process, the mechanisms behind the structure formation still remain largely unknown. Ongoing discussions are based on two very different hypotheses: structure formation due to alignment and stabilization of proteins at the molecular level vs. structure formation due to morphology development in multiphase systems. The aim of this paper is, therefore, to investigate the mechanism responsible for the formation of anisotropic structures during the high moisture extrusion of plant proteins. A model protein, soy protein isolate, is extruded at high moisture content and the changes in protein–protein interactions and microstructure are investigated. Anisotropic structures are achieved under the given conditions and are influenced by the material temperature (between 124 and 135 °C). Extrusion processing has a negligible effect on protein–protein interactions, suggesting that an alignment of protein molecules is not required for the structure formation. Instead, the extrudates show a distinct multiphase system. This system consists of a water-rich, dispersed phase surrounded by a water-poor, i.e., protein-rich, continuous phase. These findings could be helpful in the future process and product design of novel plant-based meat analogues

Analysis of the complex rheological properties of highly concentrated proteins with a closed cavity rheometer

Highly concentrated biopolymers are used in food extrusion processing. It is well known that rheological properties of biopolymers influence considerably both process conditions and product properties. Therefore, characterization of rheological properties under extrusionrelevant conditions is crucial to process and product design. Since conventional rheological methods are still lacking for this purpose, a novel approach is presented. A closed cavity rheometer known in the rubber industry was used to systematically characterize a highly concentrated soy protein, a very relevant protein in extruded meat analogues. Rheological properties were first determined and discussed in the linear viscoelastic range (SAOS). Rheological analysis was then carried out in the non-linear viscoelastic range (LAOS), as high deformations in extrusion demand for measurements at process-relevant high strains. The protein showed gel behavior in the linear range, while liquid behavior was observed in the nonlinear range. An expected increase in elasticity through addition of methylcellulosewas detected. The measurements in the non-linear range reveal significant changes of material behavior with increasing strain. As another tool for rheological characterization, a stress relaxation test was carried out which confirmed the increase of elastic behavior after methylcellulose addition

Comparison of the Rheological Properties of Plant Proteins from Various Sources for Extrusion Applications

Plant proteins in foods are becoming increasingly popular with consumers. However, their application in extruded products remains a major challenge, as the various protein-rich raw materials (e.g., from different plant origins) exhibit very different material properties. In particular, the rheological properties of these raw materials have a distinct influence on the extrusion process and must be known in order to be able to control the process and adjust the product properties. In this study, process-relevant rheological properties of 11 plant-based protein-rich raw materials (differing in plant origin, protein content, and manufacturer) are determined and compared. The results demonstrate distinct differences in the rheological properties, even when plant origin and protein content are identical. Time sweeps reveal not only large differences in development of viscosity over time, but also in magnitude of viscosity (up to 15-fold difference). All materials exhibit gel behaviour and strain thinning behaviour in the strain sweeps, whereas their behaviour in the non-linear viscoelastic range differs greatly. Typical relaxation behaviour of viscoelastic materials could be observed in the stress relaxation tests for all materials. Comparison of the maximum achieved shear stress, which correlates with the elastic properties, reveals an up to 53-fold difference. The results of this study could serve as a starting point for adapting raw material selection and composition to process and product design requirements and help to meet the challenge of applying plant-based proteins in food extrusion

Morphology Development and Flow Characteristics during High Moisture Extrusion of a Plant-Based Meat Analogue

Plant-based meat analogues that mimic the characteristic structure and texture of meat are becoming increasingly popular. They can be produced by means of high moisture extrusion (HME), in which protein-rich raw materials are subjected to thermomechanical stresses in the extruder at high water content (>40%) and then forced through a cooling die. The cooling die, or generally the die section, is known to have a large influence on the products’ anisotropic structures, which are determined by the morphology of the underlying multi-phase system. However, the morphology development in the process and its relationship with the flow characteristics are not yet well understood and, therefore, investigated in this work. The results show that the underlying multi-phase system is already present in the screw section of the extruder. The morphology development mainly takes place in the tapered transition zone and the non-cooled zone, while the cooled zone only has a minor influence. The cross-sectional contraction and the cooling generate elongational flows and tensile stresses in the die section, whereas the highest tensile stresses are generated in the transition zone and are assumed to be the main factor for structure formation. Cooling also has an influence on the velocity gradients and, therefore, the shear stresses; the highest shear stresses are generated towards the die exit. The results further show that morphology development in the die section is mainly governed by deformation and orientation, while the breakup of phases appears to play a minor role. The size of the dispersed phase, i.e., size of individual particles, is presumably determined in the screw section and then stays the same over the die length. Overall, this study reveals that morphology development and flow characteristics need to be understood and controlled for a successful product design in HME, which, in turn, could be achieved by a targeted design of the extruders die section

Additive Manufacturing and Vulcanization of Carbon Black Filled Natural Rubber Based Components

Additive manufacturing of thermoplastics or metals is a well-approved sustainable process for obtaining rapidly precise and individual technical components. Except for crosslinked silicone rubber or thermoplastic elastomers, there is no method of additive manufacturing of elastomers. Based on the development of the additive manufacturing of elastomers (AME) process, the material group of rubber-based cured elastomers may gain first access to the process field of three-dimensional (3D) printing. Printing and crosslinking of rubber is separated into two steps. In the first step, printing is realized by extrusion of the rubber by using a twin-screw extruder, which works according to the derived fused-filament-fabrication principle. In the second step, the component is vulcanized in a high-pressure hot-air autoclave. Because of the plastic flow behavior of non–crosslinked rubber materials, a thermoplastic shell is probably needed to maintain the geometry and position of the additively manufactured rubber. In this way, one layer of thermoplastic and one layer of rubber are printed alternatingly until the component is finished. Afterward, the manufactured binary component is placed in an autoclave to obtain the elastomer after vulcanization under a hot-air and high-pressure atmosphere. Then, the thermoplastic shell is removed from the elastomer and can subsequently be recycled. As compared with conventional thermoplastics, the high viscosity of rubber during processing and its instable shape after extrusion are challenging factors in the development of the AME. This contribution will show a modified 3D printer; explain the printing process from the designed component, via shell generation, to the vulcanized component; and show first printed components

Tailoring the Curing Kinetics of NBR-Based Rubber Compounds for Additive Manufacturing of Rod Seals

The additive manufacturing (AM) of elastomeric parts based on high-viscosity reinforced rubbers has increasingly become a topic of scientific research in recent years. In addition to the viscosity, which is several decades higher during processing than the viscosities of thermoplastics, the flowability of the compound after the printing process and the necessary chemical crosslinking of the printed component play a decisive role in producing an elastic, high-quality, and geometrically stable part. After the first technological achievements using the so-called additive manufacturing of elastomers (AME) process, the knowledge gained has to be transferred first to concrete industrial parts. Therefore, in this study, the cure kinetics of a conventional rubber compound are tailored to match the specific requirements for scorch safety in the additive manufacturing of an industrial 2-component rod seal based on an acrylonitrile butadiene rubber O-ring in combination with a thermoplastic polyurethane as the base body. Experimental tests on a test rig for rod seals demonstrate the functionality of this additively manufactured 2-component rod seal

Analysis of the complex rheological properties of highly concentrated proteins with a closed cavity rheometer

Highly concentrated biopolymers are used in food extrusion processing. It is well known that rheo-logical properties of biopolymers influence considerably both process conditions and product properties. Therefore, characterization of rheological properties under extrusion-relevant conditions is crucial to process and product design. Since conventional rheological methods are still lacking for this purpose, a novel approach is presented. A closed cavity rheometer known in the rubber industry was used to systematically characterize a highly concentrated soy protein, a very relevant protein in extruded meat analogues. Rheological properties were first determined and discussed in the linear viscoelastic range (SAOS). Rheo-logical analysis was then carried out in the non-linear viscoelastic range (LAOS), as high deformations in extrusion demand for measurements at process-relevant high strains. The protein showed gel behavior in the linear range, while liquid behavior was observed in the nonlinear range. An expected increase in elasticity through addition of methylcellulose was detected. The measurements in the non-linear range reveal significant changes of material behavior with increasing strain. As another tool for rheological characterization, a stress relaxation test was carried out which confirmed the increase of elastic behavior after methylcellulose addition