Property or Currency? The Tax Dilemma Behind Bitcoin

At Bitcoin’s peak in November 2013, there were 93,000 global transactions made in a single day. These users purchased everyday items such as personal services, food, and real estate. This alone suggests that Bitcoin is not primarily used as a long-term investment tool, but rather is used as a currency and a vehicle for global transactions. Congress and the IRS should regulate it accordingly. Representative Stockman’s Virtual Currency Reform Act offered an attempt to negate the IRS decision and officially classify Bitcoin and other virtual currencies as currency instead of property. A tax reclassification would alleviate typical users’ many inconveniences caused by burdensome accounting and tax reporting. A reclassification would also allow and encourage the use of Bitcoin and other virtual currencies because imposing a sales tax on transactions similar to everyday currencies is a small change that most users would not find prohibitive or restrictive. While it is evident that there needs to be some form of IRS taxation of virtual currencies, attempting to classify Bitcoin according to existing tax principles is challenging and ineffective. Although this is new technology and subsequently uncharted territory for many doctrines of law, the technology should be embraced and encouraged to prosper. For example, typical sales tax on transactions made on the internet are currently an unsolved dilemma. It gets even trickier trying to throw virtual currencies into the mix. Between complex tax law, jurisdictional issues, and the constant globalization of our economy, challenging legal questions will arise. Classifying certain Bitcoin transactions for a sales tax instead of a capital gains and losses tax is the first step in the right direction toward answering these difficult questions and encouraging the use of Bitcoin and other virtual currencies to further global trade in the future

Development, initial validation and reliability testing of a web-based, generic feline health-related quality of life instrument

Objectives: The objective of this study was to develop a valid, reliable web-based, generic feline health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) questionnaire instrument to measure the affective impact of chronic disease. Methods: A large initial item pool, obtained through interviews with cat owners, was reduced using predetermined criteria, survey scores for relevance and clarity, and the ability of individual items to discriminate between healthy and sick cats when owners completed a prototype questionnaire. Using these data, factor analysis was used to derive a scoring algorithm and provide evidence for factorial validity. Validity was demonstrated further in a field trial using a ‘known groups’ approach (sick vs healthy cats will have a different HRQoL profile, and the HRQoL profile of cats will deteriorate as comorbidities increase). Test–retest reliability was assessed using intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC). Results: In total, 165 items were reduced to 20 and, on the basis of a factor analysis that explained 72.3% of the variation in scores input by 71 owners of 30 healthy and 41 sick cats using the prototype, these were allocated to three domains (vitality, comfort and emotional wellbeing [EWB]) with a scoring algorithm derived using item loadings. Subsequently, the owners of 36 healthy and 58 sick cats completed one or two (n = 48) assessments. Median scores (healthy vs sick) for all domains were significantly different (P <0.001), 78% of cats were correctly classified as healthy or sick and for comorbidities the correlation coefficients were moderate (vitality 0.64; comfort 0.63; EWB 0.50). Test–retest reliability was good (ICC vitality 0.635; comfort 0.716; EWB 0.853). Conclusions and relevance: This study provides initial evidence for the validity and reliability of a novel HRQoL instrument to aid the assessment and management of chronic diseases of cats

Properties and Performance of Model Lignocellulose Derived Biofuel Mixtures as Low Carbon Replacements for Diesel Fuels

The decarbonisation of heavy-duty vehicles and other compression ignition (CI) engine applications is pivotal to meeting global climate change targets. Since these engines are likely to rely on liquid fuels, there is a need for low-carbon alternatives. One potential option could be the product blend from alcoholysis of lignocellulosic biomass. The main products include an alkyl levulinate, a dialkyl ether, and the alcohol used. The blend composition could be tailored to ensure compliance with existing fuel standards and to favour comparable engine performance and low emissions, whilst maximising the use of the main product, the alkyl levulinate. In this work, experimental and computational techniques were used to investigate the influence of the biofuel blend composition and carbon chain length on the fuel properties, engine performance, and emissions when utilising the blends in an unmodified engine. Physical properties of ethanol, n-butanol, and n-pentanol alcoholysis derived three-component blends with and without diesel were tested, along with their miscibility. A design of experiments (DoE) approach was used to effectively cover the desired design space. Accurate predictive models were produced using the DoE methodology for the flash point, density, and kinematic viscosity, for the blends, with R2 values >0.900. Blends with diesel and biodiesel were also tested to establish blend boundaries and their compliance with existing fuel standards. Tailoring the physical properties of butyl-based blends showed more favourable engine performance compared to when tailoring the combustion properties of the ethyl-based blends. The butyl-based biofuel blends could be added up to 25 vol% in diesel whilst remaining compliant with fuel standards. The blends of diesel and biofuel three-component blends were tested in a Yanmar L100V single-cylinder CI and their engine performance and emissions were determined. Emissions indices were calculated to investigate if the fuel blends would enable the engine to maintain compliance with the Euro Stage V emissions standard. The CO and total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions increased relative to diesel for all biofuel blends, whereas the particulate matter (PM) and particle number (PN) emissions reduced. The nitrogen oxide emissions were stable relative to the diesel baseline. At maximum load, the butyl-based blends reduced the THC, PM, PN, and volatile organic compounds emissions. Whist the blends were compatible with the engine in terms of their overall performance, there would need to be optimisation or the retrofitting of aftertreatment systems to ensure their compliance with the emissions standard. Chemical kinetic simulations of the gas phase combustion highlighted the need to include the fuel spray and turbulent mixing when modelling CI engine combustion in order to capture trends in combustion behaviour on blending. Chemical ignition delays followed the expected trends for the biofuel blends but did not match those from the engine, demonstrating the combined influence of chemical and physical effects on ignition delays and heat release properties

Shortening of an existing generic online health-related quality of life instrument for dogs

Objective: Development, initial validation and reliability testing of a shortened version of a web-based questionnaire instrument to measure generic health-related quality of life in companion dogs, to facilitate smartphone and online use. Materials and Methods: The original 46 items were reduced using expert judgment and factor analysis. Items were removed on the basis of item loadings and communalities on factors identified through factor analysis of responses from owners of healthy and unwell dogs, intrafactor item correlations, readability of items in the UK, USA and Australia and ability of individual items to discriminate between healthy and unwell dogs. Validity was assessed through factor analysis and a field trial using a “known groups” approach. Test–retest reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients. Results: The new instrument comprises 22 items, each of which was rated by dog owners using a 7-point Likert scale. Factor analysis revealed a structure with four health-related quality of life domains (energetic/enthusiastic, happy/content, active/comfortable, and calm/relaxed) accounting for 72% of the variability in the data compared with 64% for the original instrument. The field test involving 153 healthy and unwell dogs demonstrated good discriminative properties and high intraclass correlation coefficients. Clinical Significance: The 22-item shortened form is superior to the original instrument and can be accessed via a mobile phone app. This is likely to increase the acceptability to dog owners as a routine wellness measure in health care packages and as a therapeutic monitoring tool

Field evaluation of the efficacy and safety of a combination of spinosad and milbemycin oxime in the treatment and prevention of naturally acquired flea infestations and treatment of intestinal nematode infections in dogs in Europe

AbstractTwo separate randomised, blinded, multicentre field trials were conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a combination of spinosad and milbemycin oxime (MO) (Trifexis®, Elanco Animal Health) in the treatment and prevention of naturally acquired flea infestations and intestinal nematode infections in European dogs. Treatments using Trifexis® and each control veterinary product (CVP) were administered once on Day 0 in both field studies.In the flea field trial, 11 veterinary clinics in France participated in the study. On Day 0, whole body flea comb counts were conducted on all dogs being evaluated for enrolment. Dogs with ≥7 fleas on Day 0 were enrolled, treated once on Day 0 with spinosad/MO or the CVP (Stronghold®; selamectin) and then underwent post-treatment flea counts on Days 14 and 30. There were 150 spinosad/MO treated dogs and 71 CVP treated dogs included in the flea effectiveness population. Effectiveness against fleas (% reduction in geometric means; GM) was 98.97% and 97.37% for the spinosad/MO treated dogs, and 97.43% and 93.96% for the CVP dogs on Days 14 and 30, respectively, compared to the pre-treatment baseline flea counts. Of the spinosad/MO dogs, 89.3% and 80.0% had no live fleas on Days 14 and 30, compared to 77.5% and 70.4% of the CVP dogs, respectively.In the nematode field trial, data from 10 veterinary clinics in France and 19 in Ireland were pooled. Faecal samples from dogs at each clinic were analysed. A positive result at screening (parasite eggs from Toxocara canis, Toxascaris leonina, Trichuris vulpis or Ancylostoma caninum) allowed for enrolment. Dogs were randomised to spinosad/MO or the CVP (Milbemax®; MO/praziquantel). On Day 8, a post-treatment faecal sample was taken and analysed. Of 2333 dogs screened for nematode eggs, 238 dogs were positive with one or more of these nematodes, and 229 were enrolled in the study. Of the 229 dogs, 151 were treated with a single dose of spinosad/MO, and 77 were treated with a single dose of CVP. Post-treatment effectiveness against all nematodes (% reduction GM) was achieved with reductions of 98.57% and 97.57% for the spinosad/MO treated dogs and CVP dogs, respectively, as compared to the pre-treatment baseline faecal egg counts.Trifexis® was shown to be safe and effective against natural infestations of fleas as well as mixed and single intestinal nematode infections in client owned dogs in Europe when administered as a single oral administration at the recommended dose

Determinants of bed net use in The Gambia: implications for malaria control

Malaria is still one of the biggest health threats in the developing world, with an estimated 300 million episodes per year and one million deaths, most of which are in sub-Saharan Africa. Although the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of treated bed nets has been widely reported, little is known about the range, strength, or interaction between different factors that influence their demand at the household level. This study modeled the determinants of bed net ownership as well as the factors that influence the number of bed nets purchased. Data was collected from 1,700 randomly selected households in the Farafenni region of The Gambia. Interviews were also held with 129 community spokespersons to explore the extent to which community level factors such as the quality of roads and access to market centers also influence demand for bed nets. The results of each model of demand and their policy implications are discussed

The simplest demonstrations of quantum nonlocality

We investigate the complexity cost of demonstrating the key types of nonclassical correlations-Bell inequality violation, Einstein, Podolsky, Rosen (EPR)-steering, and entanglement-with independent agents, theoretically and in a photonic experiment. We show that the complexity cost exhibits a hierarchy among these three tasks, mirroring the recently discovered hierarchy for how robust they are to noise. For Bell inequality violations, the simplest test is the well-known Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt test, but for EPR-steering and entanglement the tests that involve the fewest number of detection patterns require nonprojective measurements. The simplest EPR-steering test requires a choice of projective measurement for one agent and a single nonprojective measurement for the other, while the simplest entanglement test uses just a single nonprojective measurement for each agent. In both of these cases, we derive our inequalities using the concept of circular two-designs. This leads to the interesting feature that in our photonic demonstrations, the correlation of interest is independent of the angle between the linear polarizers used by the two parties, which thus require no alignment

Optimising outputs from a validated online instrument to measure health-related quality of life (HRQL) in dogs

Measurement of health-related quality of life (HRQL) is becoming increasingly valuable within veterinary preventative health care and chronic disease management, as well as in outcomes research. Initial reliability and validation of a 22 item shortened version of VetMetrica (VM), structured questionnaire instrument to measure HRQL in dogs via a mobile application was reported previously. Meaningful interpretation and presentation of the 4 domain scores comprising the HRQL profile generated by VM is key to its successful use in clinical practice and research. Study one describes transformation of domain scores from 0–6 to 0–100 and normalisation of these based on the healthy canine population in two age ranges, such that a score of 50 on a 0–100 scale represents the score for the age-related average healthy dog, and establishment of a threshold to assess domain-specific health status for individual dogs. This provides the clinician with a simple method of ascertaining the health status of an individual dog relative to the average healthy population in the same age group (norm-based scoring). Study two determines the minimum important difference (MID) in domain scores which represents the smallest improvement in score that is meaningful to the dog owner, thus providing the clinician with a means of recognising what is likely to be a significant improvement in scores for an individual dog over time. Visual representation of these guidelines for the purpose of interpreting VM profile scores is presented using case studies