Estimates of population density and operational sex ratio

Individual estimates of population density (individuals/m2) and operational sex ratio (proportion of males among all individuals) for each of our 10 focal species. The date indicates the first of three consecutive days of data collection for each estimate

Genbank accession numbers

Genbank accession numbers for the gene sequences used to generate the phylogen

Andrew's toad pooled RAD-seq data

The file includes reference sequences used for alignment, SNPs identified with PoPoolation2 and their FST values of all population pairs, and genepop format data of SNPs identified with PoPoolation2. The command line used for SNP calling with PoPoolation2 could be found in README.txt

Geographical variation in limb muscle mass of the Andrew’s toad (Bufo andrewsi)

<p>Muscles are vital for the process of movement, mating and escape of predators in amphibians. During evolution, the morphological and genetic characteristics as well as the size of muscles in species will change to adapt different environments. Theory predicts that low male-male competition in highaltitude/ latitude selects for small limb muscles. Here, we used the Andrew’s toad (<i>Bufo andrewsi</i>) as a model animal to test this prediction by analyzing geographical variation in the mass of limb muscles across nine populations from the Hengduan Mountains in China. Inconsistent with the prediction, we found that latitude and altitude did not affect the relative mass of total combined limb muscles and mass of combined hindlimb muscles among populations. Meanwhile, the relative mass of combined forelimb muscles, the two forelimb muscles (flexor carpi radialis and extensor carpi radialis) and the four hindlimb muscles (e.g. biceps femoris, semimebranous, semitendinosus and peroneus) was lowest in middle latitude and largest in low latitude whereas gracilis minor was largest in high latitudes. However, we did not find any correlations between the two forelimb muscles and the four hindlimb muscles and altitude. Our findings suggest that combined forelimb muscles, flexor carpi radialis, extensor carpi radialis, biceps femoris, semimebranous, semitendinosus and peroneus are largest in low latitudes due to pressures of mate competition.</p

Data fishes

Data of the 57 fish species used in this study, including male body mass (in g), combined testes mass (in g), the presence or absence of hormonal induction of sperm production, sperm number (in billions), total sperm length (in µm), average-path sperm velocity (in µm/s), sperm longevity (in s), female body mass (in g), egg diameter (in mm), egg number (in thousands), the type of spawning water, spawning site, and mating system

Phylogeny frogs

Phylogenetic reconstruction for the 130 anurans used in this stud

Phylogeny fishes

Phylogenetic reconstruction for the 57 fishes used in this stud

Data frogs

Data of the 130 anuran species used in this study, including spawning site occurrence of foam nesting, mating system/amplexus, oviposition substrate site, oviposition type, egg capsule consistency, water type, male body mass (in g), combined testes mass (in mg), total sperm length (in µm), sperm head length (in µm), sperm flagellum length (in µm), sperm number (in million), female snout-vent length (in mm), clutch size, and egg diameter (in mm). OD in the references refers to own data

Species, latitude (°), samplings, average snout vent length (SVL: mm), brain size (mm3) and volume of different brain regions (mm3), age at sexual maturity (years), longevity (mean; years), sperm length (μm), testes mass (mg) and egg size (mm).

Species, latitude (°), samplings, average snout vent length (SVL: mm), brain size (mm3) and volume of different brain regions (mm3), age at sexual maturity (years), longevity (mean; years), sperm length (μm), testes mass (mg) and egg size (mm)

Latitudinal variation in body size in Fejervarya limnocharis supports the inverse of Bergmann’s rule: Supplementary Material

Bergmann’s rule states that within a species of endotherms smaller individuals are found in warmer conditions, which is consistent for nearly all endotherms, while in ectotherms body size patterns are less consistent. As ectothermic vertebrates, the morphology of amphibians is likely impacted by climatic conditions. Here, we examined latitudinal variation in body size in the ranid frog, <i>Fejervarya limnocharis</i>, based on literature and our own data on mean body size of 3637 individuals from 50 populations and average age of 2873 individuals from 40 populations in China. The results showed that body size was positively correlated with environmental temperature, but not with precipitation. Body size was negatively correlated with latitude among populations in this species, which supported the inverse of Bergmann’s rule. Our findings suggest that a larger body size in low-latitude populations is associated with a longer growing season related to the higher environmental temperatur