Tissue Microenvironments Define and Get Reinforced by Macrophage Phenotypes in Homeostasis or during Inflammation, Repair and Fibrosis

Current macrophage phenotype classifications are based on distinct in vitro culture conditions that do not adequately mirror complex tissue environments. In vivo monocyte progenitors populate all tissues for immune surveillance which supports the maintenance of homeostasis as well as regaining homeostasis after injury. Here we propose to classify macrophage phenotypes according to prototypical tissue environments, e.g. as they occur during homeostasis as well as during the different phases of (dermal) wound healing. In tissue necrosis and/or infection, damage- and/or pathogen-associated molecular patterns induce proinflammatory macrophages by Toll-like receptors or inflammasomes. Such classically activated macrophages contribute to further tissue inflammation and damage. Apoptotic cells and antiinflammatory cytokines dominate in postinflammatory tissues which induce macrophages to produce more antiinflammatory mediators. Similarly, tumor-associated macrophages also confer immunosuppression in tumor stroma. Insufficient parenchymal healing despite abundant growth factors pushes macrophages to gain a profibrotic phenotype and promote fibrocyte recruitment which both enforce tissue scarring. Ischemic scars are largely devoid of cytokines and growth factors so that fibrolytic macrophages that predominantly secrete proteases digest the excess extracellular matrix. Together, macrophages stabilize their surrounding tissue microenvironments by adapting different phenotypes as feed-forward mechanisms to maintain tissue homeostasis or regain it following injury. Furthermore, macrophage heterogeneity in healthy or injured tissues mirrors spatial and temporal differences in microenvironments during the various stages of tissue injury and repair. Copyright (C) 2012 S. Karger AG, Base

Die Rolle des Interferon-regulatorischen Faktors 4 in der Pathogenese des systemischen Lupus erythematodes

Trotz einer deutlichen Verbesserung der Prognose bleibt der systemische Lupus erythematodes (SLE) eine unheilbare Autoimmunkrankheit mit hoher Mortalität und insbesondere Morbidität. Da bei unvollständig verstandener Pathogenese weiterhin nur symptomatische Behandlungen verfügbar sind, steigt die Prävalenz des systemischen Lupus kontinuierlich, wobei die verursachten Kosten durch Behandlung und Arbeitsausfall aktuell in den USA jährlich bei umgerechnet über 10 Mrd. Euro liegen. Bisher ist bekannt, dass der Endorganschaden durch das Auftreten von autoreaktiven T-Zellen und insb. B-Zellen sowie von diesen produzierten Autoantikörpern vermittelt wird, sodass die Behandlung in vielen Fällen der Chemotherapie niedrig-maligner B-Zell-Lymphome ähnelt und daher viele unerwünschte Nebenwirkungen mit sich bringt. Die genaue Art und Herkunft der nukleären Autoantigene ist bislang ebenso unbekannt wie die beteiligten molekularen Signalwege, wobei hier unter anderem Toll-like-Rezeptoren sowie deren intrazelluläre Signalkaskaden, inklusive der Interferon-regulatorischen Faktoren (IRFs) diskutiert werden. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Rolle des Interferon-regulatorischen Faktor 4 (IRF4) in der Entstehung des systemischen Lupus erythematodes zu untersuchen. IRF4 wird fast ausschließlich in Zellen des Immunsystems exprimiert und reguliert als Transkriptionsfaktor die Entwicklung und Polarisierung von B-Zellen, T-Zellen und Makrophagen. Zusätzlich wirkt IRF4 aber insbesondere in dendritischen Zellen auch als negativer Regulator des pro-entzündlichen Toll-like-Rezeptor-Signalweges. Diese duale Rolle von IRF4 spiegelt sich auch in den Auswirkungen auf die Krankheitsentwicklung im untersuchten murinen SLE-Modell wieder: Während im Vergleich zu IRF4-kompetenten (wt) Mäusen IRF4-defiziente (KO) Tiere deutlich früher und stärker ausgeprägt Zeichen der systemischen Entzündung zeigen, sind sie vor der Entwicklung der SLE-typischen Endorganschäden vollständig geschützt. So weisen IRF4-KO-Mäuse stark erhöhte Plasmaspiegel von IL-12 und TNF-α sowie eine ausgeprägte Splenomegalie auf, zeigen aber weder detektierbare Autoantikörper im Plasma noch die typische Lupusnephritis. Neben der Wichtigkeit von autoreaktiven Lymphozyten in der Pathogenese des SLE zeigt die vorliegende Arbeit damit, dass trotz hyperaktiver innater Immunität der autoimmune Endorganschaden vermieden werden kann, was perspektivisch die Möglichkeiten einer eher immunmodulatorischen als rein immunsuppressiven Therapie mit ihren zahlreichen Nebenwirkungen aufzeigt

Die Rolle des Interferon-regulatorischen Faktors 4 in der Pathogenese des systemischen Lupus erythematodes

Trotz einer deutlichen Verbesserung der Prognose bleibt der systemische Lupus erythematodes (SLE) eine unheilbare Autoimmunkrankheit mit hoher Mortalität und insbesondere Morbidität. Da bei unvollständig verstandener Pathogenese weiterhin nur symptomatische Behandlungen verfügbar sind, steigt die Prävalenz des systemischen Lupus kontinuierlich, wobei die verursachten Kosten durch Behandlung und Arbeitsausfall aktuell in den USA jährlich bei umgerechnet über 10 Mrd. Euro liegen. Bisher ist bekannt, dass der Endorganschaden durch das Auftreten von autoreaktiven T-Zellen und insb. B-Zellen sowie von diesen produzierten Autoantikörpern vermittelt wird, sodass die Behandlung in vielen Fällen der Chemotherapie niedrig-maligner B-Zell-Lymphome ähnelt und daher viele unerwünschte Nebenwirkungen mit sich bringt. Die genaue Art und Herkunft der nukleären Autoantigene ist bislang ebenso unbekannt wie die beteiligten molekularen Signalwege, wobei hier unter anderem Toll-like-Rezeptoren sowie deren intrazelluläre Signalkaskaden, inklusive der Interferon-regulatorischen Faktoren (IRFs) diskutiert werden. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Rolle des Interferon-regulatorischen Faktor 4 (IRF4) in der Entstehung des systemischen Lupus erythematodes zu untersuchen. IRF4 wird fast ausschließlich in Zellen des Immunsystems exprimiert und reguliert als Transkriptionsfaktor die Entwicklung und Polarisierung von B-Zellen, T-Zellen und Makrophagen. Zusätzlich wirkt IRF4 aber insbesondere in dendritischen Zellen auch als negativer Regulator des pro-entzündlichen Toll-like-Rezeptor-Signalweges. Diese duale Rolle von IRF4 spiegelt sich auch in den Auswirkungen auf die Krankheitsentwicklung im untersuchten murinen SLE-Modell wieder: Während im Vergleich zu IRF4-kompetenten (wt) Mäusen IRF4-defiziente (KO) Tiere deutlich früher und stärker ausgeprägt Zeichen der systemischen Entzündung zeigen, sind sie vor der Entwicklung der SLE-typischen Endorganschäden vollständig geschützt. So weisen IRF4-KO-Mäuse stark erhöhte Plasmaspiegel von IL-12 und TNF-α sowie eine ausgeprägte Splenomegalie auf, zeigen aber weder detektierbare Autoantikörper im Plasma noch die typische Lupusnephritis. Neben der Wichtigkeit von autoreaktiven Lymphozyten in der Pathogenese des SLE zeigt die vorliegende Arbeit damit, dass trotz hyperaktiver innater Immunität der autoimmune Endorganschaden vermieden werden kann, was perspektivisch die Möglichkeiten einer eher immunmodulatorischen als rein immunsuppressiven Therapie mit ihren zahlreichen Nebenwirkungen aufzeigt

Tissues Use Resident Dendritic Cells and Macrophages to Maintain Homeostasis and to Regain Homeostasis upon Tissue Injury: The Immunoregulatory Role of Changing Tissue Environments

Most tissues harbor resident mononuclear phagocytes, that is, dendritic cells and macrophages. A classification that sufficiently covers their phenotypic heterogeneity and plasticity during homeostasis and disease does not yet exist because cell culture-based phenotypes often do not match those found in vivo. The plasticity of mononuclear phagocytes becomes obvious during dynamic or complex disease processes. Different data interpretation also originates from different conceptual perspectives. An immune-centric view assumes that a particular priming of phagocytes then causes a particular type of pathology in target tissues, conceptually similar to antigen-specific T-cell priming. A tissue-centric view assumes that changing tissue microenvironments shape the phenotypes of their resident and infiltrating mononuclear phagocytes to fulfill the tissue's need to maintain or regain homeostasis. Here we discuss the latter concept, for example, why different organs host different types of mononuclear phagocytes during homeostasis. We further discuss how injuries alter tissue environments and how this primes mononuclear phagocytes to enforce this particular environment, for example, to support host defense and pathogen clearance, to support the resolution of inflammation, to support epithelial and mesenchymal healing, and to support the resolution of fibrosis to the smallest possible scar. Thus, organ- and disease phase-specific microenvironments determine macrophage and dendritic cell heterogeneity in a temporal and spatial manner, which assures their support to maintain and regain homeostasis in whatever condition. Mononuclear phagocytes contributions to tissue pathologies relate to their central roles in orchestrating all stages of host defense and wound healing, which often become maladaptive processes, especially in sterile and/or diffuse tissue injuries

MatricS—A novel tool for monitoring professional role development in surgical disciplines

Introduction: Mentoring is an effective method for human resource development. Monitoring the process is important for individual mentee/mentor pairs as well as for program directors. Due to individual personality differences of both mentees and mentors and their respective interactions, it is challenging to monitor the individual development process of mentees in a structured manner. This study investigates to what extent a novel instrument, the mentee-based assessment tool for role development of interpersonal competencies in surgical professions (MatricS) can adequately monitor the professional role development process of residents during an established mentoring program. Material and methods: In a prospective longitudinal study, the competence development of 31 mentees in two subsequent cohorts was assessed by a modified role matrix based on Canadian Medical Education Directives for Specialists. The evaluation focused on three defined roles (D, developer; N, networker; M, multiplicator) at three levels (private, employer-related, national/international) with four stages of development. For validation of mentee self-assessments, the assessments of the respective mentors were recorded alongside. For correlation analyses, Pearson coefficients were calculated, pre-post-comparisons were done by paired t-tests; significance was assumed at p < 0.05, respectively. Results: Mentee self-assessments overall correlated well with the objective mentor assessments (Pearson's r 0.8, p 75% of all roles and levels. Conclusion: The role development process during mentoring can be reliably monitored by using MatricS. MatricS scores highly correlate between mentees and mentors, indicating that mentee self-assessments are suitable and sufficient for monitoring. These findings help to lessen the work burden on senior surgeons and thus can help to increase the acceptance of mentoring programs in surgical disciplines

Can clinical case discussions foster clinical reasoning skills in undergraduate medical education? A randomised controlled trial

OBJECTIVE Fostering clinical reasoning is a mainstay of medical education. Based on the clinicopathological conferences, we propose a case-based peer teaching approach called clinical case discussions (CCDs) to promote the respective skills in medical students. This study compares the effectiveness of different CCD formats with varying degrees of social interaction in fostering clinical reasoning. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS A single-centre randomised controlled trial with a parallel design was conducted at a German university. Study participants (N=106) were stratified and tested regarding their clinical reasoning skills right after CCD participation and 2 weeks later. INTERVENTION Participants worked within a live discussion group (Live-CCD), a group watching recordings of the live discussions (Video-CCD) or a group working with printed cases (Paper-Cases). The presentation of case information followed an admission-discussion-summary sequence. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES Clinical reasoning skills were measured with a knowledge application test addressing the students' conceptual, strategic and conditional knowledge. Additionally, subjective learning outcomes were assessed. RESULTS With respect to learning outcomes, the Live-CCD group displayed the best results, followed by Video-CCD and Paper-Cases, F(2,87)=27.07, p<0.001, partial η2=0.384. No difference was found between Live-CCD and Video-CCD groups in the delayed post-test; however, both outperformed the Paper-Cases group, F(2,87)=30.91, p<0.001, partial η2=0.415. Regarding subjective learning outcomes, the Live-CCD received significantly better ratings than the other formats, F(2,85)=13.16, p<0.001, partial η2=0.236. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates that the CCD approach is an effective and sustainable clinical reasoning teaching resource for medical students. Subjective learning outcomes underline the importance of learner (inter)activity in the acquisition of clinical reasoning skills in the context of case-based learning. Higher efficacy of more interactive formats can be attributed to positive effects of collaborative learning. Future research should investigate how the Live-CCD format can further be improved and how video-based CCDs can be enhanced through instructional support

Regulated necrosis-related molecule mRNA expression in humans and mice and in murine acute tissue injury and systemic autoimmunity leading to progressive organ damage, and progressive fibrosis

The species-specific, as well as organ-specific expression of regulated necrosis (RN)-related molecules, is not known. We determined the expression levels of tumour necrosis factor receptor-1 (TNFR1), receptor activated protein kinase (RIPK) 1, RIPK3, mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL), CASP8, Fas-associated protein with death domain (FADD), cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein (CIAP) 1, CIAP2, glutathione peroxidase-4 (GPX4), cyclophilin D (CYPD), CASP1, NLRP3 and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1) in human and mouse solid organs. We observed significant differences in expression of these molecules between human and mice. In addition, we characterized their expression profiles in acute as well as persistent tissue injury and chronic tissue remodelling using acute and chronic kidney injury models. We observed that the degree and pattern of induction of RN-related molecules were highly dependent on the trigger and disease pathogenesis. Furthermore, we studied their expression patterns in mice with lupus-like systemic autoimmunity, which revealed that the expression of MLKL, GPX4 and PARP1 significantly increased in the spleen along disease progression and CASP1, RIPK1, RIPK3 and CYPD were higher at the earlier stages but were significantly decreased in the later stages. In contrast, in the kidney, the expression of genes involved in pyroptosis, e. g. NLRP3 and CASP1 were significantly increased and TNFR1, RIPK1, RIPK3, CIAP1/2 and GPX4 were significantly decreased along the progression of lupus nephritis (LN). Thus, the organ-and species-specific expression of RN-related molecules should be considered during designing experiments, interpreting the results as well as extrapolating the conclusions from one species or organ to another species or organ respectively

IL-22 sustains epithelial integrity in progressive kidney remodeling and fibrosis

IL-22, a member of the IL-10 cytokine family, accelerates tubule regeneration upon acute kidney injury, hence we speculated on a protective role also in chronic kidney disease. We quantified intrarenal IL-22 expression after unilateral ureteral (UUO) in wild-type mice and performed UUO in IL-22 knock-out animals. Obstruction phenotypic differences between IL22(+/+) and IL22(-/-) mice were assessed by histology, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence as well as western blotting and reverse-transcriptase quantitative PCR ex vivo. Additionally, we performed in vitro experiments using both murine and human tubular cells to characterize IL-22 effects in epithelial healing. We found increasing IL22 positivity in infiltrating immune cells over time upon UUO in wild-type mice. UUO in IL22(-/-) mice caused more tubular cell injury as defined by TUNEL positive cells and loss of tetragonolobus lectin staining. Instead, tubular dilation, loss of CD31+ perivascular capillaries, and interstitial fibrosis were independent of the Il22 genotype as assessed by standard histology, immunostaining, and mRNA expression profiling. In vitro experiments showed that recombinant human IL-22 significantly enhanced human tubular epithelial cell proliferation and wound closure upon mechanical injury, and electric cell-substrate impedance sensing studies revealed that recombinant IL-22 sustained tubular epithelial barrier function upon injury. In contrast, IL-22 had no such direct effects on human fibroblasts. Together, in progressive kidney remodeling upon UUO, infiltrating immune cells secrete IL-22, which augments tubular epithelial integrity and epithelial barrier function, but does not affect vascular rarefaction or fibrogenesis. We conclude that IL-22 could represent a molecular target to specifically modulate tubular atrophy

High macrophage activities are associated with advanced periductal fibrosis in chronic Opisthorchis viverrini infection

Liver fluke infection caused by Opisthorchis viverrini induces several hepatobiliary conditions including advanced periductal fibrosis (APF ) and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA ), but >25% of the infected population develops APF and 1% develop CCA . The innate immune response is the first line of defence, and macrophages are critical regulators of fibrosis. We hypothesized that macrophages from infected individuals have different capacities to either promote or suppress periductal fibrosis. We compared phagocytic activities of macrophages of healthy individuals and O viverrini‐ infected individuals ± APF , and found that macrophages from infected individuals with APF ingested significantly higher numbers of beads compared with healthy controls and O viverrini‐ infected individuals without APF . To further investigate proteolytic activity, we monitored real‐time phagosomal proteolysis of beads conjugated to DQ ‐BODIPY ‐BSA using live cell imaging. We show that macrophages from O viverrini‐ infected individuals with APF also have elevated phagosomal proteolysis activity, which is consistent with their increased phagocytic activity. Additionally, stimulated ROS production by blood monocytes was higher in individuals with APF compared with healthy controls and infected individuals without APF . These results suggest that during O viverrini infection, macrophages with high phagocytic and proteolytic activities together with elevated ROS production are the phenotypes that can promote tissue damage, which results in periductal fibrosis