Climate-Smart Agriculture in Rwanda

The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) concept reflects an ambition to improve the integration of agriculture development and climate responsiveness. It aims to achieve food security and broader development goals under a changing climate and increasing food demand. CSA initiatives sustainably increase productivity, enhance resilience, and reduce/remove greenhouse gases (GHGs), and require planning to address tradeoffs and synergies between these three pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation [1]. The priorities of different countries and stakeholders are reflected to achieve more efficient, effective, and equitable food systems that address challenges in environmental, social, and economic dimensions across productive landscapes. While the concept is new, and still evolving, many of the practices that make up CSA already exist worldwide and are used by farmers to cope with various production risks [2]. Mainstreaming CSA requires critical stocktaking of ongoing and promising practices for the future, and of institutional and financial enablers for CSA adoption. This country profile provides a snapshot of a developing baseline created to initiate discussion, both within countries and globally, about entry points for investing in CSA at scale

Kinetics of pulmonary cytokine production after challenge of vaccinated mice with SCHU S4.

<p>BALB/c mice (n = 4/group) were immunized ID with ∼10⁵ CFU of FSC200 <i>ΔclpB</i> (circle) or LVS (square). Six weeks later immunized mice were challenged IN with 86 CFU of SCHU S4. Mice were killed on days 2,4,7,14 after challenge and Luminex performed on their lungs. *, significantly higher level vs other vaccinated group.</p

Efficacy comparison of SCHU S4 <i>ΔclpB</i> versus FSC200 <i>ΔclpB.</i>

<p>BALB/c mice (n = 5/group) were immunized with 10³ (squares), 10⁵ (circles), or 10⁷ (triangles) CFU of SCHU S4<i>ΔclpB</i> (open symbols) or FSC200<i>ΔclpB</i> (closed symbols). Immunized mice and naïve controls (inverted triangle) were challenged six weeks later IN with 105 CFU of SCHU S4. *, significantly better survival versus mice immunized with FSC200<i>ΔclpB</i>.</p

Kinetics of SCHU S4 infection in mice immunized with FSC200 <i>ΔclpB</i> vs LVS.

<p>BALB/c mice (n = 4/group) were immunized ID with ∼10⁵ CFU of FSC200 <i>ΔclpB</i> (circle) or LVS (square). Six weeks later immunized and control mice were challenged IN with 86 CFU of SCHU S4. Mice were killed on days 2,4,7,14 after challenge and bacteriology performed on their organs. *, significantly higher burden vs mice immunized with FSC200 <i>ΔclpB</i>.</p

Protective efficacy of ID vaccination with FSC200<i>ΔclpB versus</i> LVS against respiratory challenge with SCHU S4.

<p>BALB/c mice were immunized ID with 10⁵ CFU of LVS (square; n = 12) or FSC200<i>ΔclpB</i> (circle; n = 17) and challenged 6 weeks later IN with 86 CFU of SCHU S4. <b>*</b>, Significantly longer survival than mice immunized with LVS.</p

Attenuation of FSC200<i>ΔclpB</i> for mice.

<p>BALB/c mice (n = 5/group) were inoculated ID with 10⁷ CFU of FSC200<i>ΔclpB</i> (circle) or 100 CFU of the complemented strain (square) and monitored for survival.</p

Immunoreactivity of sera from BALB/c mice after vaccination with FSC200Δ<i>clpB</i> or LVS.

<p>Mice were bled 28 days after immunization with 10⁵ CFU of FSC200<i>ΔclpB</i> or LVS. Each pool contained sera from five mice. Western blots were developed and scanned, and immunoreactive areas recorded as relative immunoreactivity, measured by densitometry. Shown are the top ranked immunodominant proteins. The identity of each immunoreactive area was determined by alignment with an equivalent protein stained gel, and immunoreactive spots identified by nLC-MSMS of their tryptic digests.</p

<i>In vivo</i> growth kinetics of FSC200 <i>ΔclpB</i> vs LVS following ID vaccination.

<p>BALB/c mice (n = 4/group) were immunized ID with ∼10⁵ CFU of FSC200 <i>ΔclpB</i> (circle) or LVS (square). Mice were killed on days 2,4,7,and 14 for bacteriology. *, significantly higher burden vs LVS. Symbols not shown for organ burdens below detectable limits (100 CFU).</p

Course of infection in mice immunized ID with 10⁵ CFU of SCHU S4-based mutants <i>ΔfupAΔcapB</i> (red), ΔclpB (blue), LVS (green) and in naïve mice (black) following aerosol challenge at six weeks post vaccination.

<p>Course of infection in mice immunized ID with 10⁵ CFU of SCHU S4-based mutants <i>ΔfupAΔcapB</i> (red), ΔclpB (blue), LVS (green) and in naïve mice (black) following aerosol challenge at six weeks post vaccination.</p

Survival of control mice (black) or mice immunized ID with LVS (green) or <i>ΔclpB</i> (blue) following IN challenge with different doses of SCHU S4 six weeks post vaccination.

<p>Blue asterisk, significantly greater survival than control mice or mice immunized with LVS; green asterisk, significantly greater survival than control mice.</p