Developing value chains to farming as business with technology and innovations in Kenya

The Feed the Future Kenya - Accelerated Value Chain Development (AVCD) program seeks to widely apply technologies and innovations for selected value chains in order to competitively and sustainably increase productivity, contributing to inclusive agricultural growth, nutrition and food security in the country. The program’s main goal is to sustainably reduce poverty and hunger in the Feed the Future zones of influence in Kenya

Antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli isolates detected in raw milk of livestock in pastoral areas of northern Kenya

Antimicrobial agents are used widely in veterinary and human medicine worldwide. However, their use has suffered a major setback globally due to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in a wide range of microorganisms. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of AMR in household milk for human consumption in Isiolo County, Kenya. The study identified 42 Escherichia coli (E.coli) isolates from 304 milk samples that were collected in randomly selected households in northern Kenya. E. coli was isolated using Eosin Methylene Blue Agar and identified using biochemical tests. The isolates were confirmed using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and sequencing. The antimicrobial resistance profiles of the isolates to 11 antimicrobial agents were evaluated by disc diffusion method on Mueller Hinton Agar. Additionally, the isolates were evaluated for antimicrobial genetic determinants conferring the resistance phenotypes to beta-lactams and tetracycline. Overall, 95% of the isolates were resistant to at least one of the tested antimicrobials. Large proportions (81%) of the isolates were resistant to beta-lactams followed by tetracycline (55%) and streptomycin (29%). All the isolates were, however, susceptible to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was observed in 14.28% of the isolates and beta-lactam resistant isolates were confirmed to be harbouring blaSHV, blaTEM and blaCTX-M genes. The demonstration of AMR determinants and especially Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamase (ESBL) carriers in milk reveals the risk posed to food safety, particularly to communities that consume raw milk. This study found that raw milk consumed in Isiolo County was contaminated with resistant strains of E. coli. There is, therefore, a need to determine the sources of this resistance and implement interventions to reduce the emergence and spread of AMR bacteria. We recommend implementation of measures that could reduce the presence of antimicrobial resistant E. coli strains in raw milk food chain

Antimicrobial usage and detection of multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant strains in raw milk of livestock from northern Kenya

The association of antimicrobial usage (AMU) with prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in livestock raw milk consumed by pastoralists in Kenya remains unclear. We investigated the relationship between AMU and emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) S. aureus, including MRSA in raw milk of livestock. AMU data were obtained using sales records from veterinary pharmacies. S. aureus was isolated from 603 milk samples from various livestock species, including sheep, goat, cow, and camel reared in Isiolo and Marsabit counties in Kenya. Resistant phenotypes and genotypes were determined by disc diffusion and molecular methods, respectively. Correlation between AMU and occurrence of resistance was determined by Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) method. The consumption of various antimicrobial classes were as follows; 4,168 kg of oxytetracycline, 70 kg of sulfonamides, 49.7 kg of aminoglycosides, 46 kg of beta-lactams, 39.4 kg of macrolides, and 0.52 kg for trimethoprim. The S. aureus isolates were mainly resistant to tetracycline (79%), ampicillin (58%), and oxacillin (33%), respectively. A few isolates (5–18%) were resistant to clindamycin, cephalexin, erythromycin, kanamycin, and ciprofloxacin. Most of the MDR-S. aureus isolates were MRSA (94%). The genetic determinants found in the AMR isolates included tetK/tetM (96.5%/19%) for tetracycline, blaZ (79%) for penicillin, aac (6′)/aph (2′′)/aph (3′)-IIIa (53%) for aminoglycosides, mecA (41%) for oxacillin, and msrA/ermA (24%/7%) for macrolides. Oxytetracycline usage was correlated to tetK/tetM (r = 0.62/1) detection, penicillins to mecA/blaZ (r = 0.86/0.98), aminoglycoside to aac (6′)/aph (2′′)/aph (3′)-IIIa (r = 0.76/−13), and macrolide usages for detection of ermA/msrA (r = 0.94/0.77). AMU appeared to be associated with occurrence of MDR-SA and the tetM detection. Consumption of raw milk contaminated with MRSA could pose a serious public health risk in pastoral communities in northern Kenya

Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin genes detected in milk from various livestock species in northern pastoral region of Kenya

Staphylococcus aureus (SA) food poisoning results from consumption of preformed S. aureus enterotoxins in food. The enterotoxins are one of the most important virulence factors of the bacterium. The risk posed by contamination of milk intended for human consumption by pathogenic S. aureus in pastoral areas in Kenya is still generally not well documented yet this information is critical for ensuring safety to consumers who sometimes may take unpasteurized milk. This study, therefore determined the prevalence of S. aureus enterotoxin genes in raw milk from cattle, goats, sheep and camels intended for human consumption in northern Kenya. A total of 603 milk samples from 57 zebu cattle, 346 galla goats, 8 red Maasai and dorper sheep, 4 one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) and 188 pooled from all animals were collected from Isiolo and Marsabit counties of Kenya. S. aureus isolates were cultured from milk samples using a selective media, mannitol salt agar (MSA). Suspect colonies of SA were further analyzed using biochemical tests. Polymerase chain reaction and sequencing techniques were used to confirm SA and detect sea, seb, sec, sed and see enterotoxin genes. Overall, potentially pathogenic S. aureus harboring enterotoxic genes were detected in 85 (14.09 %, 95 % CI: 11.55-17.1 %) of the total milk samples. Genes encoding enterotoxins were detected in the S. aureus bacteria isolated from the milk samples. At least one type of S. aureus enterotoxin gene (SE) was detected in 74.11% (95 % CI: 63.91-82.24 %) of the 85 isolates. The most frequently encountered gene in the two counties was see (51; 60%, 95 % CI: 49.73-69.76 %) followed by sea (22; 25.88 %, 95 % CI: 17.76 -36.09 %) and sec (19; 22.35 %, 95 % CI: 14.8-32.29 %). None of the isolates tested positive for sed. Overall, 21 of the 85 (24.7%, 95 % CI: 16.76-34.83 %) strains harbored more than one enterotoxin gene. More than half of the S. aureus isolates harbored at least one of the enterotoxin coding genes, indicating milk samples contaminated by S. aureus could have a high chance of causing staphylococcal food intoxication. Consumption of raw and sour milk in the region could increase the risk of staphylococcal food poisoning and pastoral communities in the region are therefore advised to consume pasteurized milk