The evolution of European perception of the term 'hybrid warfare'

The emergence and use of the term 'hybrid warfare' is related to the efforts of the US military analysts to explain the changes in the physiognomy of war, as well as the practical problems of the US Armed Forces on the ground as a result of these changes. A wider debate within American (Western) military circles on the inefficiency of Western conventional power in asymmetric conflicts at the beginning of the 21th century has been caused by the combined use of conventional and irregular methods of warfare by the Taliban, Al Qaeda and Hezbollah. In this situation, the term 'hybrid warfare' has provided an explanation for the asymmetric concept of warfare on which Western military forces did not have an adequate response. The theory of 'hybrid warfare' was established in 2007, and its essence indicated the combined use of violent methods by non-state actors. Since the beginning of the Ukrainian crisis, the perception of the concept of 'hybrid warfare' has been considerably changing and expanding. In addition to violent methods, the concept has also included non-violent methods such as economic, diplomatic, political, information methods, etc. Moreover, non-state actors were no longer in the focus of the concept, and states have become the main stakeholders of hybrid activities. Thus, the term 'hybrid warfare' comes out of narrow military considerations and gets wider political and media attention. In this paper, the authors have tried to identify and explain the reasons that led to the change of the perception of the term 'hybrid war' after the Ukrainian crisis, despite the evolution of the meaning of the term, from the non-state to the state-centric concept of warfare. In order to achieve this goal, the authors have set the European perception of Russian involvement in the Ukrainian crisis in the focus of their consideration

The occurrence of Trichophytosis among people and cattle on a farm in Vojvodina, Serbia

Dermatophytoses are frequent contagious fungal skin diseases that affect the skin of people and animals. Zoophile dermatophytes pose a significant problem for both human and veterinary medicine, and they are especially present among bovines. In this paper we showed a simultaneous occurrence of trichophytosis among professionally exposed people and bovines on a farm in Vojvodina, Serbia. The tested samples (skin scrapings and hair) originating from people and animals, were positive for Trichophyton verrucosum dermatophyte which was determined by applying a direct microscopic examination of the smears, as well as the isolation and identification of the agents

A global experiment on motivating social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic

Finding communication strategies that effectively motivate social distancing continues to be a global public health priority during the COVID-19 pandemic. This cross-country, preregistered experiment (n = 25,718 from 89 countries) tested hypotheses concerning generalizable positive and negative outcomes of social distancing messages that promoted personal agency and reflective choices (i.e., an autonomy-supportive message) or were restrictive and shaming (i.e., a controlling message) compared with no message at all. Results partially supported experimental hypotheses in that the controlling message increased controlled motivation (a poorly internalized form of motivation relying on shame, guilt, and fear of social consequences) relative to no message. On the other hand, the autonomy-supportive message lowered feelings of defiance compared with the controlling message, but the controlling message did not differ from receiving no message at all. Unexpectedly, messages did not influence autonomous motivation (a highly internalized form of motivation relying on one’s core values) or behavioral intentions. Results supported hypothesized associations between people’s existing autonomous and controlled motivations and self-reported behavioral intentions to engage in social distancing. Controlled motivation was associated with more defiance and less long-term behavioral intention to engage in social distancing, whereas autonomous motivation was associated with less defiance and more short- and long-term intentions to social distance. Overall, this work highlights the potential harm of using shaming and pressuring language in public health communication, with implications for the current and future global health challenges

A global experiment on motivating social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic

Significance Communicating in ways that motivate engagement in social distancing remains a critical global public health priority during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study tested motivational qualities of messages about social distancing (those that promoted choice and agency vs. those that were forceful and shaming) in 25,718 people in 89 countries. The autonomy-supportive message decreased feelings of defying social distancing recommendations relative to the controlling message, and the controlling message increased controlled motivation, a less effective form of motivation, relative to no message. Message type did not impact intentions to socially distance, but people’s existing motivations were related to intentions. Findings were generalizable across a geographically diverse sample and may inform public health communication strategies in this and future global health emergencies. Abstract Finding communication strategies that effectively motivate social distancing continues to be a global public health priority during the COVID-19 pandemic. This cross-country, preregistered experiment (n = 25,718 from 89 countries) tested hypotheses concerning generalizable positive and negative outcomes of social distancing messages that promoted personal agency and reflective choices (i.e., an autonomy-supportive message) or were restrictive and shaming (i.e., a controlling message) compared with no message at all. Results partially supported experimental hypotheses in that the controlling message increased controlled motivation (a poorly internalized form of motivation relying on shame, guilt, and fear of social consequences) relative to no message. On the other hand, the autonomy-supportive message lowered feelings of defiance compared with the controlling message, but the controlling message did not differ from receiving no message at all. Unexpectedly, messages did not influence autonomous motivation (a highly internalized form of motivation relying on one’s core values) or behavioral intentions. Results supported hypothesized associations between people’s existing autonomous and controlled motivations and self-reported behavioral intentions to engage in social distancing. Controlled motivation was associated with more defiance and less long-term behavioral intention to engage in social distancing, whereas autonomous motivation was associated with less defiance and more short- and long-term intentions to social distance. Overall, this work highlights the potential harm of using shaming and pressuring language in public health communication, with implications for the current and future global health challenges

A global experiment on motivating social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic

Finding communication strategies that effectively motivate social distancing continues to be a global public health priority during the COVID-19 pandemic. This cross-country, preregistered experiment (n = 25,718 from 89 countries) tested hypotheses concerning generalizable positive and negative outcomes of social distancing messages that promoted personal agency and reflective choices (i.e., an autonomy-supportive message) or were restrictive and shaming (i.e. a controlling message) compared to no message at all. Results partially supported experimental hypotheses in that the controlling message increased controlled motivation (a poorly-internalized form of motivation relying on shame, guilt, and fear of social consequences) relative to no message. On the other hand, the autonomy-supportive message lowered feelings of defiance compared to the controlling message, but the controlling message did not differ from receiving no message at all. Unexpectedly, messages did not influence autonomous motivation (a highly-internalized form of motivation relying on one’s core values) or behavioral intentions. Results supported hypothesized associations between people’s existing autonomous and controlled motivations and self-reported behavioral intentions to engage in social distancing: Controlled motivation was associated with more defiance and less long-term behavioral intentions to engage in social distancing, whereas autonomous motivation was associated with less defiance and more short- and long-term intentions to social distance. Overall, this work highlights the potential harm of using shaming and pressuring language in public health communication, with implications for the current and future global health challenges

Consideration of an adequate theoretical-epistemological approach in hybrid warfare phenomenon research

The characteristics of warfare, as a complex social phenomenon, are determined by the impact of different factors. However, they are conditioned to a great extent by the applied concepts of warfare of conflicting sides. They represent the idea of how to lead warfare and they can include various methods, tactics, activities, means, forces, etc. The implementation of conceptual ideas in practice results in a concrete way of waging warfare, which definitely determines the characteristics of each individual conflict. Thus, war practice suggests that contemporary conflicts, especially the ones after the Cold War, are significantly different from the previous ones, where the massive use of military power dominated. This suggests that the characteristics of contemporary conflicts are significantly determined by the characteristics of new concepts of warfare on which they are based. Thus, scientific consideration and explanation of new concepts and contemporary forms of warfare is inseparable. An essential characteristic of 'hybrid warfare' and similar concepts such as asymmetric or irregular, is contained in the fact that the role of armed struggle is minimized in relation to other non-military contents of warfare. This establishes a new criterion for scientific classification of warfare into contemporary and classical one. However, the minimized role of armed struggle within new concepts problematizes the essence of warfare and implementation of the current classical theory of warfare in consideration and determination of contemporary conflicts. The occurrence of theoretical problems necessarily raises the issue of the adequate choice of theoretical-epistemological approach in research of the phenomenon of 'hybrid warfare' and modern warfare. By analyzing ontological and epistemological views of various approaches in this paper, it is concluded that the interpretative approach is the most adequate in this respect

Comprehensive defense and strategic culture from a human perspective

The problem framework of the paper indicates that in the period of globalization of international relations, there have been changes in the thinking and practice of the state's defense function as a military activity. An indicator of these changes is recognized in the development and implementation of the strategic concept of comprehensive defense, which deviates from the traditional logic of the state's defense function as the logic of military power. Considering the mentioned problem, the subject of the research is focused on the questions why and how the logic of the defense function has changed and how these changes affect the strategic concept of defense and the strategic culture of the states. The paper starts from the thesis that the civilizational development of a human has conditioned a change in the values that the state defends, as well as the nature of the phenomena that endanger those values, which has resulted in changes in the logic of the state's defense function, its strategic concept and strategic culture. In proving this thesis, the analogy of the defense functions of a human and the state is used. Namely, the paper considers how the complex nature of a human, as a biological and conscious being, shapes their defense mechanism, and by knowing what the object of human defense is and how a human defends that object, it is possible, by analogy, to draw conclusions on the same issues of the defense function of the state. The paper concludes that the defense function of the state, until recently, was based on those values and defense behavior of a human that was characteristic of their natural state, i.e. on survival and aggressive behavior. However, in recent decades, the civilizational development of a human and society has changed the priorities in the values that the state defends, as well as the nature of the phenomena that endanger those values. As a result, the state's defense behavior has changed. Namely, in modern global relations, in addition to survival, the quality of life imposes as another vital value and the state's defense interest. On the other hand, in strategic relations between states, non-military phenomena of endangering their defense interests are gaining in importance. In response to these changes, the strategic concept of defense is based on comprehensive defense, i.e. on the logic of integrating military power with other elements of national power. In this way, the strategic culture of the state, which has so far been narrowly understood as a "military culture" or "culture of the use of force", is gradually changing

Islamic factor in the West Balkans in geopolitical concepts of western powers and Islamic centers of power

Civilizational stereotypes of the ideological incompatibility and traditional discord of Christian and Islamic civilizations cannot explain the occasional partnership arrangements in the Balkans between the great powers of Western (post)Christian civilization and religious and political centers of Islamic civilization, as well as the Western powers' assuming the role of protector of Balkan Muslims in conflicts with local Christians. This phenomenon is still evident in a specific Balkan territorial whole called the 'Western Balkans'. It is populated with substantial and influential Muslim minority, and is characterized by its political, economic and security instability. Acknowledging the civilizational postulates in explaining the social phenomena, the explanation of this phenomenon should, however, be looked for in the sphere of rational and piercingly realistic geopolitical views of great Western powers directed towards the Balkans, as well as the role of the Islamic factor in their geopolitical concepts. Therefore, this paper, through an analysis of the impact of certain aspects of the Islamic factor on the most important features of the geopolitical position of the 'Western Balkans', seeks to more closely, through the prism of geopolitical observations, explain and predict further courses of development of the civilizationally inconceivable geopolitical alliances in this area

Leaching of copper(I) sulfide in calcium chloride solution

Finely grained samples of copper(I) sulphide were leached by CaCl2·2H2O solution with added HCl and the introduction of gaseous oxygen. The occurrence probability of chemical reactions was analyzed based on literature and products, which were formed during the process, and the overall leaching reaction was defined. The effect of temperature, concentration of CaCl2·2H2O, HCl and total chloride ions, stirring speed, phase ratio and time, on the leaching degree of copper was studied. The quantity of copper dissolved increases with the increase of the values of all the parameters. The role of chloride ions is to disrupt the passivating sulphur layer on the particle surface, by promoting the formation of crystalline sulphur rather than a crypto-crystalline or amorphous product. It was concluded that the leaching reaction is second order, with respect to the concentration of total chloride ions. Experimental results show that the leaching mechanism is very complex. By using appropriate mathematical kinetic models, it is found that the leaching rate is diffusion-controlled