Current status and impact (2004-2015) of indigenous ungulate herbivory on the vegetation of Sanbona Wildlife Reserve in the Little Karoo

Game farming is becoming more popular in southern Africa and the introduction of large indigenous ungulates into confined enclosed areas could alter plant communities and ecosystem processes. This is of particular concern in semi-arid rangelands of the Succulent Karoo where the evolutionary history of grazing is not clear and the compatibility of large herbivores in confined areas remains to be demonstrated. The establishment of Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, a 54 000 hectare private game reserve in the Little Karoo, which converted from livestock farming to game farming, allows an opportunity to study the vegetation dynamics in a confined plant-herbivore system. This study investigates the current community structure and the changes in the floral composition and vegetation structure of enclosed and comparable sites subjected to grazing by large herbivores after twelve years (2004-2015). It also determines the relative effect of grazing and rainfall on the observed patterns. Finally, the implications of these findings for management are discussed. Data from drop-point surveys in fenced (exclosure) and unfenced (grazed) plots in the dominant vegetation types as well as annual and seasonal rainfall totals, stocking rates of herbivores and annual game census information, were analysed. These were used in multivariate ordination techniques, regressions and linear mixed-effects models to determine the communities and their relationship with herbivory and rainfall over time and identify a set of indicator species. The annual game census information was used to determine areas of herbivore preference or 'hotspots' and for the identification of highly-utilised areas. Cluster analysis, using the flexible beta method in PC-Ord, was used to determine the current plant communities. Non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination (NMS) was used to determine the relationship of these communities with the environmental variables and illustrate the trajectories in floristic data. Species were also assigned to plant growth forms and examined as communities and growth form types. The Bray-Curtis distance measures were used to investigate the difference between each treatment over time, within each vegetation community and between treatments. Finally, the effects of rainfall and herbivory were examined using linear mixed-effects models of change over time vs the various potential determinants of change using lmer functions in R. Four communities were identified. These communities corresponded well with to the vegetation type descriptions for Western Little Karoo, Little Karoo Quartz Vygieveld and Renosterveld as described in the National Vegetation Map of Mucina and Rutherford (2006). However, the Western Little Karoo was too broad and two communities were recognised within this vegetation type. The finer scale mapping by Vlok et al. (2005) corresponded relatively well to these communities. Results showed an increase in species richness, abundance and cover over time, with the ungrazed plots experiencing more change than the plots exposed to grazing. Most growth forms exhibited an increase in cover, although low leaf succulents declined in both grazed and ungrazed plots. Medium evergreen shrubs declined in the exclosures and stem succulents declined in the grazed plots. The effects were found in both grazed and ungrazed treatments. In addition, many species which declined in abundance were unpalatable or toxic to herbivores. Because of this, the decline in cover of such species was not attributed to grazing, but was instead interpreted as being a response to other disturbance mechanisms, to competitive displacement and to rainfall events. The low stocking rates in the first five years of the study resulted in there being very little difference evident between the treatments. However, once stocking rates increased from 2008, both species richness and cover increased more rapidly in the ungrazed plots, compared to the grazed plots. An increase in palatable and unpalatable species was observed within both ungrazed and grazed plots indicating that grazing did not change the proportion of palatability classes. However, specific plots in the areas of high animal utilisation were more affected as indicated by the response of cover, species richness and palatable species in these specific plots. This suggests that the grazing pressure may be too high within those areas. The linear mixed-effect model supports the argument that grazing pressure is the dominant driver of the community change within grazed plots. Similarly, the results show that rainfall is the primary driver of the vegetation community in the absence of grazing. Timing, amount and intensity of rainfall can mask these impacts. Thus, the contribution of grazing to vegetation change can probably only be detected by tracking the trends over decades or longer. The use of indicators as a management tool is well documented. In order to identify indicators, a theoretical framework for determining indicators species in the different vegetation communities was created. This was based on the correlation between species abundance and sampling period in the different treatments, which identified species that have significantly increased or decreased over time as a result of the change in land use. Species identified as potential indicators were selected on the basis based on their abundance and ranged in lifespans and palatability. The indicators chosen need to be monitored into the future to confirm their utility as indicators. A small but significant difference between grazed and ungrazed plots suggest that herbivore impact is apparent. Identifying this trend indicates that the monitoring programme is providing a useful tool for assessing the impact of herbivores on an ongoing basis. The recovery process following the withdrawal of domestic livestock from Sanbona was much slower in the grazed plots than in the protected plots. Therefore, for the continued recovery of the vegetation to occur and for there to be a sustained increase in cover, active management of animal numbers needs to take place. The results from this study can contribute to future management decisions on the reserve and form a basis for future analyses

Diet and seasonal dispersal of extralimital giraffe at Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, Little Karoo, South Africa

CITATION: Gordon, C. N. et al. 2016. Diet and seasonal dispersal of extralimital giraffe at Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, Little Karoo, South Africa. Koedoe, 58(1), a1346, doi:10.4102/koedoe.v58i1.1346.The original publication is available at http://www.koedoe.co.zaSouth African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa) have been introduced as an extralimital species to private farms in the Little Karoo on the basis of economic sustainability, and the need to create a competitive tourism product. However, little is known about the medium- to long-term impacts and ecological sustainability of such introductions. The diet of a population of giraffe on Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, near the town of Ladismith, was assessed via direct observations between January and October 2014, in order to determine their potential impact on the world’s most species-rich semi-desert, the Succulent Karoo. Unlike giraffe in their native range, the Sanbona population showed seasonal preference for browse species. Acacia karroo (sweet thorn) appears to be the preferred browse species during autumn and spring, with Schotia afra being the preferred species in winter, and no significant preference being shown in summer. Giraffe also appeared to seasonally move between catchments where tree species other than A. karroo occurs, especially during winter and spring when the tributaries of the Brak River, containing mixed Acacia with S. afra (karoo boer-bean) and Euclea undulata (small-leaved guarri), were visited with increasing frequency. These results largely confirm the importance of A. karroo as the main browse species in this environment but also suggest that other species may be important components of the diet of extralimital giraffe in the Little Karoo. On farms where A. karroo is dominant, supplementary feed may be needed when A. karroo browse is unavailable due to leaf drop. Conservation implications: Acacia karroo was the main browse species of extralimital G. c. giraffa at Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, but it switched to S. afra during winter. This suggests that an assessment of alternative food species forms part of suitability assessments for the introduction of extralimital G. c. giraffa for areas similar to Sanbona.http://www.koedoe.co.za/index.php/koedoe/article/view/1346Publisher's versio

An analysis of the validity and reliability of handheld ultrasound device for measuring rectus femoris muscle size

Background: Previous studies show that ultrasound is valid and reliable when measuring muscle size. A Philips handheld ultrasound device was released in April 2015. The aim of this study was to investigate the validity and reliability of the handheld ultrasound device compared to a conventional ultrasound device, when measuring the size of the rectus femoris (RF). Methods: Two sonographers scanned 39 volunteers (mean age=29.3y, 26 female), once with the Toshiba SSA-660A (regular) ultrasound device and twice with the Philips hand held VISIQ device. The size of the RF (expressed in cross sectional area (CSA) was measured two ways; using the trackball on the Toshiba device and an automatic region of interest on the VISIQ device (method 1), and an ellipse on both devices using the formula π*half width*half length (method 2).Results: Method 1 resulted in an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of .811 with a 95% (confidence interval) CI of .773-.837 (inter-rater reliability) and .907 with a 95% CI of .822-.951 (validity). The ICCs of method 2 were .787 with a 95% CI of .593-.888 (inter-rater reliability) and .867 with a 95 % CI of .746-.930 (validity). Conclusion: VISIQ is a valid and reliable device for measuring RF-CSA. In clinical practice VISIQ could be used for measuring RF-CSA, consequently it could be an economical and easily portable technology for use in both clinical and residential setting

An analysis of the validity and reliability of a handheld ultrasound device for measuring rectus femoris muscle size

Background: Previous studies show that ultrasound is valid and reliable when measuring muscle size. A Philips handheld ultrasound device was released in April 2015. The aim of this study was to investigate the validity and reliability of the handheld ultrasound device compared to a conventional ultrasound device, when measuring the size of the rectus femoris (RF). Methods: Two sonographers scanned 39 volunteers (mean age=29.3y, 26 female), once with the Toshiba SSA-660A (regular) ultrasound device and twice with the Philips hand held VISIQ device. The size of the RF (expressed in cross sectional area (CSA) was measured two ways; using the trackball on the Toshiba device and an automatic region of interest on the VISIQ device (method 1), and an ellipse on both devices using the formula π*half width*half length (method 2). Results: Method 1 resulted in an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of .811 with a 95% (confidence interval) CI of .773-.837 (inter-rater reliability) and .907 with a 95% CI of .822-.951 (validity). The ICCs of method 2 were .787 with a 95% CI of .593-.888 (inter-rater reliability) and .867 with a 95 % CI of .746-.930 (validity). Conclusion: VISIQ is a valid and reliable device for measuring RF-CSA. In clinical practice VISIQ could be used for measuring RF-CSA, consequently it could be an economical and easily portable technology for use in both clinical and residential settings.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio