EVALUATION OF MACRO- AND MICROELEMENTS IN WASTEWATERS AND SURFACE WATER BODIES OF THE EASTERN PO RIVER BASIN

The growing shortage of water combined with the sharp increase in population and the development of large cities due to rapid urbanization are different aspects of an important problem, and the competition among the various consumers of water increases concerns about the protection of the environment and health. Agriculture represents the greatest burden on the availability of water and most international projects dealing with water reuse are aimed at this sector. The reuse of water for irrigation cannot overlook certain risks for human health and the environment which depend on the quality of the recycled water, its use, soil characteristics and climatic conditions. Urban wastewaters, if separated from those of industrial origin, contain concentrations of organic and inorganic compounds that present only limited problems for human health in the case of reuse for irrigation. On this basis, the present study examines various characteristics of wastewaters coming from different urban wastewater treatment plants and surface water bodies situated in the eastern Po basin and in particular the Provinces of Bologna and Ferrara. The application of multivariate statistical methods can allow us to interpret the large and complex matrices of analytical data obtained during monitoring campaigns. In particular, cluster analysis, which discriminates data on the basis of the degree of similarity among different classes of quality, was able to characterize the quality of the wastewaters of the various plants. Moreover, it was possible to distinguish different types of water in the surface water bodies of the sub-basins in the Provinces of Ferrara and Bologna

Soil Organic Carbon Stock Assessment for Volunteer Carbon Removal Benefit: Methodological Approach in Chestnut Orchard for Fruit Production

The implementation of a protocol for supporting a reliable soil C market is needed. This paper aims to propose a methodology for evaluating soil organic C (SOC) stock changes for the C credit market. A 15-year-old chestnut orchard (CO) and a chestnut coppice (CC) as reference land were selected in the northern part of the Apennine chain (Italy). The CO is the result of the CC conversion carried out in 2005. The soil sampling by pedogenetic horizons till parent material was carried out in 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2020 in CO and in 2005 and 2020 in CC. For each sample, the concentration and stock of the total SOC and of the most recalcitrant SOC form were estimated. Unlike the CC, in CO, an increase over time of SOC stocks was observed throughout the entire soil profile indicating the suitability of CO for C credit gaining. Most of the SOC was stored within the deepest soil horizon. The methodology can be considered eligible for the C credit market because, replicable, the CO was intentionally realized by humans after 1990, and the additionality was evaluated. Moreover, soil functionality was considered through the evaluation of SOC forms and of the pedogenetic horizons

Effects of Douglas fir stand age on soil chemical properties, nutrient dynamics, and enzyme activity: A case study in Northern Apennines, Italy

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a Douglas fir plantation along a stand chronosequence in the North Apennine (Italy) on soil carbon and nitrogen stocks, as well as on soil chemical and biochemical properties involved in the nutrients biogeochemical cycle. In 2014, three sites of Douglas fir stands, aged 80, 100, and 120 years, were selected in Vallombrosa forest to study the dynamics of soil nutrients in the ecosystem. Along the Douglas fir chronosequence, general evidence of surface element accumulation was found, including a conspicuous increase of alkaline element with respect to Al, which was attributed to the increase of soil pH along the Douglas fir stand age classes. A general increase of specific enzyme activity (per unit of organic carbon) and functional diversity were observed in the epipedon of the Douglas fir stand over 100 years of age. Moreover, the (chitinase + leucine aminopeptidase) to acid phosphatase ratio progressively increased from 0.15 to 0.31 in the epipedon of the chrononsequence, while the -glucosidase to (chitinase + leucine aminopeptidase) ratio decreased from 1.45 to 0.83, suggesting nitrogen limitation with respect to carbon. In fact, the soil carbon stock progressively increased along the chronosequence, in the epipedon from 17 to 53 Mg C ha(-1) and in the endopedon from 17 to 37 Mg C ha(-1). Conversely, the soil nitrogen stock increased from 1.2 to 2.4 Mg N ha(-1), but not over the 100-year-old stand class. In conclusion, soil organic matter accumulation became sufficient to define the umbric horizon in the Northern Apennines when the Douglas fir plantation reached the age of 100 years. Over this age class of plants, a limitation of soil nitrogen may occur, affecting enzyme activities regulating the biogeochemical cycle of nutrients

Heavy metal accumulation in vegetables grown in urban gardens.

Urban agriculture is increasingly popular for social and economical benefits. However, edible crops grown in cities can be contaminated by airborne pollutants, thuse leading to serious heatlh risks. Therefore we need a better understanding of contamination risks of urban cultivation to define safe practices. Here we study heavy metal risk in horticultural crops grown in urban gardens of Bologna, Italy. We investigated the effect of proximity to different pollution sources such as roads and railways, and the effect of the growing system used, that is soil versus soilless cultivation. We compared heavy metals concentration in urban and rural crops. We focussed on surface deposition and tissue accumulation of pollutants during three years. Results show that in the city crops near the road were polluted by heavy metals, with up to 160 mg per Kg dry weight for lettuce and 210 mg/Kg for basil. The highest Cd accumulation of up to 1.2 mg/Kg was found in rural tomato. Soilless planting systems enabled a reduction of heavy metal accumulation in plant tissue, of up to -71% for rosemary leaves

Spatial microbial community structure and biodiversity analysis in "extreme" hypersaline soils of a semiarid Mediterranean area

In recent years specific attention has been paid on the biotechnological potential of microorganisms in extreme soils, in particular in saline soils. Salinity is one of the most widespread soil degradation processes on the Earth, and saline soils can be defined as extreme soils or border line habitats in which several factors, as high salt content, may limit the growth of organisms. In this study, the physical, chemical and microbiological soil properties were investigated in the shallower horizon of natural salt-affected soils in Sicily (Italy). The main aim of the research was to evaluate the structure and diversity of bacterial and archaeal communities by terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) according to arbitrary different classes of vegetation and salt crust cover in soils. Furthermore, the structure of microbial communities was assessed considering the heterogeneity of physical-chemical properties of the habitat under investigation, as a function of vegetation, crust cover, and salinity classes. The results provided information on the type of distribution of different microbial community composition and diversity as a function of both vegetation and crust cover as well as salinity classes. In particular, the archaeal community showed a richness and diversity significantly affected by the spatial gradients of soil salinity, conversely, the bacterial one showed a decreasing trend with increasing gradient of soil salinity. The T-RFLP cluster analysis showed the formation of two groups for both bacterial and archaeal community, significantly (. p<. 0.05) influenced by sand and silt content, electrical conductivity (EC. e), vegetation cover percentage, salt crust and for by texture composition. In particular, the discriminant analysis obtained for the different salt crust classes for archaeal community stressed the membership of one of the two clusters to the class with the lower salt crust percentage (0-40%)

Assessment of water quality and soil salinity in the agricultural coastal plain (Ravenna, North Italy)

To improve knowledge on salt leaching suitability on different soils, in Arenosols and Cambisols croplands in the coastal area of Ravenna (Italy), soil samples were collected in the non-irrigation winter period and irrigation summer period. Concurrently, waters of the canal network were also investigated. Soil samples were analyzed for pH, carbonate, total organic carbon (TOC), particle size distribution, electrical conductivity (EC), bulk density (BD) and water content at field capacity (FC). Water samples were investigated for pH, EC, biological and chemical oxygen demand, sodium adsorption ratio, phosphorus, nitrogen, sulfates and chlorides. All soils had low TOC concentrations and Arenosols showed the lowest clay content, BD and FC. Soils had similar EC values in winter, but in summer the lowest ones were observed in Arenosols, suggesting that irrigation mitigated salinization in Arenosols, while the high clay content, BD and FC prevented or limited the salt leaching in Cambisols. In summer, the increase of total nitrogen and biological oxygen demand, especially in drainage channels, might suggest the leaching of soluble nutrients and organic matter from soils due to the high irrigation water volumes. Finally, our findings stress the need to consider soil type and properties to contrast soil salinization without negative effects on soil C leaching caused by salt leaching practice

In situ remediation of polluted Spolic Technosols using Ca(OH)2 and smectitic marlstone

Technosols are soils developed on non-traditional substrates and containing large quantities of materials mostly due to intensive human industrial activity, such as artefacts. The increasing number of sites affected by Technosols and their impact on the environment as growing media for plants or as source of pollutants require an understanding of their functioning and evolution, above all the knowledge on the transport of toxic substances from contaminated technogenic soils to groundwater. A case study on properties, remediation and evaluation of Technosols made up by vitrified fly ash and glass\u2013ceramics in Italy was carried out. Original technogenic soils, classified as Spolic Technosols (ecotoxic),were pedotechnically in situ remediated by adding smectitic marlstone and Ca(OH)2. Chemical analysis on samples from piezometers showed the presence of harmful heavy metals in groundwater. By means of boreholes and soil profiles the newsoils generated, after remediation, were physically and chemically characterized and classified as Spolic Technosols (calcaric). Analysis on soil toxicity and leaching tests showed the effectiveness of the remediation and the mobility reduction of some potentially harmful elements according to the environmental Italian regulation

Pedodiversity and Organic Matter Stock of Soils Developed on Sandstone Formations in the Northern Apennines (Italy)

Pedodiversity is considered the cornerstone of biodiversity. This work aimed to (1) assess pedodiversity according to vegetation, topographic factors, and lithology and to (2) identify the major soil-forming factors on soil organic matter (SOM) stock at a 0-30 cm depth. These goals were reached using data from 147 georeferenced soil profiles distributed along 400-1000 m (<= 1000) and 1000-2134 m (>1000) altitudinal gradients in the northern part of the Apennine chain in Italy. Soils showed mainly weak or incipient development (i.e., Entisols and Inceptisols), which could be attributed to sand-based lithology, high slope gradients, and low SOM accumulation rates, which promote soil erosion processes. However, higher pedodiversity was observed at >1000 m than at <= 1000 m, likely due to the higher vegetation cover diversity and climate variability; Spodosols and Mollisols were also found. A greater SOM stock was found at >1000 than <= 1000 m, and vegetation seemed to not affect SOM amounts, suggesting a greater influence of climate on SOM content compared to vegetation. Considering ecosystem conservation, the observed spatial pedodiversity could be considered a critical basis for the protection of soil resources and pedodiversity itself in mountain regions

A natural saline soil as a model for understanding to what extent the concentration of salt affects the distribution of microorganisms

Soils preserve and sustain life. Their health and functioning are crucial for crop production and for the maintenance of major ecosystem services. Human induced salinity is one of the main soil threats that reduces soil fertility and affect crop yields. In recent times, great attention has been paid to the general shortage of arable land and to the increasing demand for ecological restoration of areas affected by salinization processes. Despite the diffuse interest on the effects of salinization on plants\u2019 growth, and all the derived socioeconomic issues, very few studies analyzed the ecology of the microbial species in naturally saline soils and the resilience of biological fertility in these extreme habitats. Microorganisms inhabiting such environments may share a strategy, may have developed multiple adaptations for maintaining their populations, and cope eventually to extreme conditions by altruistic or cooperative behaviors for maintaining their metabolism active. The understanding and the knowledge of the composition and distribution of microbial communities in natural hypersaline soils can be interesting for ecological reasons but also to develop new restoration strategy where soil fertility was compromised by natural accidents or human mismanagement. The aim of this research was to provide specific information on saline soils in Italy, stressing mainly their distribution, the socioeconomic issues and the understanding of the characterizing ecological processes. Moreover, natural saline soils were used as a model for understanding to what extent the concentration of salt can affect some basic microbial processes. In the present study, physical, chemical and microbiological soil properties were investigated in the shallower horizons of natural salt affected soils in Sicily (Italy), where some ecological contrasting variables acted as strong drivers in fungal and bacterial spatial distribution. Furthermore, the interface between biological and geochemical components in the surface of that peculiar habitat was investigated to evaluate the organization and diversity of the phototrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms. Sixteen soil samples from A horizons were collected according to a random sampling scheme. Bacterial and archaeal communities were characterized by their 16S rDNA genes with T-RFLP method. A total of 92 genera were identified from the 16S pyrosequencing analysis suggesting that cyanobacteria and communities of sulfur bacteria might directly or indirectly promote the formation of protective envelope. Some bacterial phyla appeared spread in the whole area, whatever the salinity gradient, while other groups showed a distribution linked to very compartmentalised soil properties, such as the presence of saline crusts in the soil surface. Results show that saline soils couldn\u2019t contain just one single microbial community selected to withstand extreme osmotic phenomena, but many communities that can be variously correlated to one or more environmental parameters having great importance for the maintenance of the overall homeostasis