Are short food supply chains more environmentally sustainable than long chains? a life cycle assessment (LCA) of the eco-efficiency of food chains in selected EU countries

Improving the eco-efficiency of food systems is one of the major global challenges faced by the modern world. Short food supply chains (SFSCs) are commonly regarded to be less harmful to the environment, among various reasons, due to their organizational distribution and thus the shortened physical distance between primary producers and final consumers. In this paper, we empirically test this hypothesis, by assessing and comparing the environmental impacts of short and long food supply chains. Based on the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach, we calculate eco-efficiency indicators for nine types of food distribution chains. The analysis is performed on a sample of 428 short and long food supply chains from six European countries. Our results indicate that, on average, long food supply chains may generate less negative environmental impacts than short chains (in terms of fossil fuel energy consumption, pollution, and GHG emissions) per kg of a given product. The values of eco-efficiency indicators display a large variability across analyzed chains, and especially across different types of SFSCs. The analysis shows that the environmental impacts of the food distribution process are not only determined by the geographical distance between producer and consumer, but depend on numerous factors, including the supply chain infrastructure

Strengthening European Food Chain Sustainability by Quality and Procurement Policy: Working paper on the conceptual framework and literature review for understanding the social, environmental and economic impact of FQS, SFSC and varying PSFP policies on agri-food chain participants and rural territories

• The territory is: i) the place of production which specific environmental characteristics (micro-climate and local varieties) are capable of qualitatively characterizing the products; ii) the place that, according to the presence of institutions and methods of interaction between the agents, facilitates the provision of the product, lowers transaction costs and contributes to the creation of its reputation; iii) for SFSC, it is the place of consumption; iv) the place where different supply chain management arrangements generate environmental, social and economic impacts. • Taking into account the aforementioned characteristics, the most effective conceptualization of the place of production is represented by the Cluster or, even better, by the Industrial District which, in the case of the agro-food industry, is a Localised Agri-Food System (LAFS) or System Agroalimentaire Localisé (SYAL). • The uniqueness of the LAFS resides in recognizing the role of the territory in terms of its social and institutional components and their ability to contribute to the creation of value within the supply chain. The specific nature of the LAFS is represented by the deep interaction between food cultures, human actions and institutions. LAFSs are the result of a process of cooperation among companies with common interests, located in an area, which organise and agree on certain production and marketing norms and rules to obtain a competitive advantage over competitors. • Looking at the characteristics of the production area, both industrial and rural LAFSs can be defined. The former is dominated by the agri-industrial characteristics and agents of the territory, while the latter are dominated by their rural dimensions highlighting the natural and environmental features of the production process. • The LAFS paradigm (either industrial or rural) supports an endogenous development model based on the intrinsic characteristics of the production system, intended in its broadest sense, which - in the case of rural development - takes the form of neo-endogenous rural development. It delineates an endogenous-based development in which extra-local factors are recognised and regarded as essential, while retaining a belief in the potential of local areas to shape their future. In contrast to the theoretical underpinnings of both exogenous and endogenous models of rural development, neo-endogenous rural development is based on the interplay of both local and external factors, so that the development strategy is built upon the link between local conditions and external opportunities. • The need to embrace extra-local factors and adopt an integrated network approach is also emphasised, although control remains within the local area rather than being dictated by extra-local influences. Therefore, the focal point of neo-endogenous development is the enhancement of local institutional capacity, to mobilise local resources while exploiting external opportunities. • The territory and its endogenous development model are complemented by a third component of the identification of a FQS: the characteristics of the value chain. The technological functions of the supply chain are combined in a more economic and managerial function. Typically, the supply chain, especially in the agri-food sector, is regarded as a tool for managing production, useful to create an appropriate product quality and develop marketing strategies aimed at creating value for all the actors of the chain. • Food chains are characterised by efficiency and the ability to transfer (or retain) value for the benefit of agents. They are dynamic structures subject to the evolution of structural and economic components under internal and external phenomena. These phenomena include: the evolution of the supply chain, the degree of openness to trade, the level and evolution of market demand, the evolution of the concept and perception of quality, as well as of it service components, the presence of standards and inter-organisational relationships. Additional elements include: the presence of agents and external institutions to the value chain that provide services and information, the extent of information asymmetry and the incidence of transaction costs. • Given the characteristics of the value chain and the relationship between the agricultural and the industrial component, as well as the relationship between companies and inter-branch organisations (when present), attention must be placed on how to develop collective commercial strategies capable of increasing the value added of the product and/or the bargaining power of the enterprises that turn to large scale distribution channels. In a nutshell, a dominant model of FQS-value chain does not exist but - rather - several typologies of FQS value chains emerge, according to the combination of their structural and management features. • However, common elements in the FQS supply chains encompass the need to comply with EU Regulations and the presence of a set of rules laid down in a code of practice, which requires establishing a system for managing the FQS (especially GI) through an organization suited to local conditions and capable of establishing a FQS strategy encompassing the whole value chain. In addition, FQS value chains feature a third party certification body which guarantees the actors’ compliance with the code of practice. • The literature shows that within value chains and LAFSs, organizations (e.g., producer organizations, inter-branch organizations and certification bodies) and local institutions operate for the benefit of all the agents. This is fuelled by a sense of belonging, by the necessity to develop chain strategies, as well as the common interests of territorial actors, and it translates into governance actions. Chain and LAFS organizations are the result of the interaction with other participating actors (e.g., companies, institutions), generating a set of dynamic forces that allows to adapt to the challenges posed by the market. • In this framework, local institutions represent stakeholders that play key roles in the process of increasing territorial competitiveness. Their role is mainly to strengthen relationships among stakeholders, with the general aim of obtaining the production of those public goods and the creation of those positive externalities which most serve the process of development, increasing the level of competitiveness of the entire local system. • Arguably, local institutions can be organised as hybrid organisations, since they represent the collective interest of individual producers, involved in the same food chain within the same territory. Indeed, according to the literature concerning the definition of collective action, local productions involve a wide range of stakeholders, operating within and outside the production area, although only some of them are directly involved in the value creation process. • The interaction among LAFS stakeholders is instrumental to the evolution process of the local system, considering the link between the territory and the food chain. The possible combinations between food chains and territories lead to three different types of agri-food systems: Closed LAFS: local agricultural outputs are processed by local food industries (mainly Small and Medium Enterprises) and are purchased at local level (mainly by local consumers). Open LAFS: agricultural outputs are not processed by local food industries and are purchased by non-local consumers (or can be purchase anywhere). Mixed Systems: a coexistence of Closed and Open LAFS. • Within the S2F project we will consider the links between the territory and the food chain, embedded in the LAFS, and the implications regarding their sustainability. • The LAFS concept provides the criteria to address the identification and the recognition of the boundaries of the LAFS area according to the characteristics of the FQS considered in the research activity: For GI productions (PDO, PGI and TSG), the LAFS is represented by the municipalities identified in the official code of practice that is part of the EU regulation published on the DOOR database; For organic products, the LAFS is not officially defined and the suggested criteria refer to the region where producers carry out their production and commercial activities; For SFSC products, in the absence of a legislative reference, the definition of the LAFS refers to the region that includes the production and consumption area that, necessarily, are contiguous to each other. In the real world, different FQS can overlap each other, generating a hybrid FQS framework (e.g.: organic-GI; Organic-SFSC, GI-SFSC; Organic-SFSC-GI). In this case, the dominant criterion is the presence of a Designation. When the GI is not considered, the dominant criterion is the SFSC. • In the S2F project, the link between quality schemes and the territory is considered as follows: Closed LAFS: all the inputs come from the territory and all the output is purchased within the territory in local markets, e.g. for SFSCs and Short Food Geographical Indications (SF-GIs), in other words SF-PDOs. Open LAFS: upstream and downstream elements of the chain are not bounded by the territory, as a consequences inputs can come from outside of the area as for some PGIs and Organic productions. In this cluster, most of the output is purchased in distant markets that can be “domestic” or “global” in nature (when consumers are in different regions with different market rules; i.e., extra-EU); Mixed LAFS: in this cluster for some FQSs some inputs can come from others regions, as for PGIs and Organic products. Moreover, most of the output is purchased in local markets but part of the outputs is also sold in “domestic” markets (when consumers are in different regions but with the same market rules, i.e., in the EU). • The level of embeddedness of the value chain with respect to the LAFS creates different categories of markets: local to local (i.e., the case of SFSC and some PSFP); local to domestic (i.e., the case of GIs and Organic); local to global (i.e., the case of GIs), and determines different (public and private) strategies and impacts (Vandecandelaere et al., 2010; Torres Salcido and Muchnik, 2012, Fischer, 2012). • In this framework, GIs, Organic, SFSC and PSFP products can benefit from the LAFS environment (reputation, institutions and governance actions) and will generate impacts, affecting sustainability. Furthermore, Convention Theory and Cultural Adaptation Work represent important methodological tools useful to evaluate how quality and management systems contribute to sustainability

Working paper on the conceptual framework and literature review for understanding the social, environmental and economic impact of FQS, SFSC and varying PSFP policies on agri-food chain participants and rural territories

• The territory is: i) the place of production which specific environmental characteristics (micro-climate and local varieties) are capable of qualitatively characterizing the products; ii) the place that, according to the presence of institutions and methods of interaction between the agents, facilitates the provision of the product, lowers transaction costs and contributes to the creation of its reputation; iii) for SFSC, it is the place of consumption; iv) the place where different supply chain management arrangements generate environmental, social and economic impacts. • Taking into account the aforementioned characteristics, the most effective conceptualization of the place of production is represented by the Cluster or, even better, by the Industrial District which, in the case of the agro-food industry, is a Localised Agri-Food System (LAFS) or System Agroalimentaire Localisé (SYAL). • The uniqueness of the LAFS resides in recognizing the role of the territory in terms of its social and institutional components and their ability to contribute to the creation of value within the supply chain. The specific nature of the LAFS is represented by the deep interaction between food cultures, human actions and institutions. LAFSs are the result of a process of cooperation among companies with common interests, located in an area, which organise and agree on certain production and marketing norms and rules to obtain a competitive advantage over competitors. • Looking at the characteristics of the production area, both industrial and rural LAFSs can be defined. The former is dominated by the agri-industrial characteristics and agents of the territory, while the latter are dominated by their rural dimensions highlighting the natural and environmental features of the production process. • The LAFS paradigm (either industrial or rural) supports an endogenous development model based on the intrinsic characteristics of the production system, intended in its broadest sense, which - in the case of rural development - takes the form of neo-endogenous rural development. It delineates an endogenous-based development in which extra-local factors are recognised and regarded as essential, while retaining a belief in the potential of local areas to shape their future. In contrast to the theoretical underpinnings of both exogenous and endogenous models of rural development, neo-endogenous rural development is based on the interplay of both local and external factors, so that the development strategy is built upon the link between local conditions and external opportunities. • The need to embrace extra-local factors and adopt an integrated network approach is also emphasised, although control remains within the local area rather than being dictated by extra-local influences. Therefore, the focal point of neo-endogenous development is the enhancement of local institutional capacity, to mobilise local resources while exploiting external opportunities. • The territory and its endogenous development model are complemented by a third component of the identification of a FQS: the characteristics of the value chain. The technological functions of the supply chain are combined in a more economic and managerial function. Typically, the supply chain, especially in the agri-food sector, is regarded as a tool for managing production, useful to create an appropriate product quality and develop marketing strategies aimed at creating value for all the actors of the chain. • Food chains are characterised by efficiency and the ability to transfer (or retain) value for the benefit of agents. They are dynamic structures subject to the evolution of structural and economic components under internal and external phenomena. These phenomena include: the evolution of the supply chain, the degree of openness to trade, the level and evolution of market demand, the evolution of the concept and perception of quality, as well as of it service components, the presence of standards and inter-organisational relationships. Additional elements include: the presence of agents and external institutions to the value chain that provide services and information, the extent of information asymmetry and the incidence of transaction costs. • Given the characteristics of the value chain and the relationship between the agricultural and the industrial component, as well as the relationship between companies and inter-branch organisations (when present), attention must be placed on how to develop collective commercial strategies capable of increasing the value added of the product and/or the bargaining power of the enterprises that turn to large scale distribution channels. In a nutshell, a dominant model of FQS-value chain does not exist but - rather - several typologies of FQS value chains emerge, according to the combination of their structural and management features. • However, common elements in the FQS supply chains encompass the need to comply with EU Regulations and the presence of a set of rules laid down in a code of practice, which requires establishing a system for managing the FQS (especially GI) through an organization suited to local conditions and capable of establishing a FQS strategy encompassing the whole value chain. In addition, FQS value chains feature a third party certification body which guarantees the actors’ compliance with the code of practice. • The literature shows that within value chains and LAFSs, organizations (e.g., producer organizations, inter-branch organizations and certification bodies) and local institutions operate for the benefit of all the agents. This is fuelled by a sense of belonging, by the necessity to develop chain strategies, as well as the common interests of territorial actors, and it translates into governance actions. Chain and LAFS organizations are the result of the interaction with other participating actors (e.g., companies, institutions), generating a set of dynamic forces that allows to adapt to the challenges posed by the market. • In this framework, local institutions represent stakeholders that play key roles in the process of increasing territorial competitiveness. Their role is mainly to strengthen relationships among stakeholders, with the general aim of obtaining the production of those public goods and the creation of those positive externalities which most serve the process of development, increasing the level of competitiveness of the entire local system. • Arguably, local institutions can be organised as hybrid organisations, since they represent the collective interest of individual producers, involved in the same food chain within the same territory. Indeed, according to the literature concerning the definition of collective action, local productions involve a wide range of stakeholders, operating within and outside the production area, although only some of them are directly involved in the value creation process. • The interaction among LAFS stakeholders is instrumental to the evolution process of the local system, considering the link between the territory and the food chain. The possible combinations between food chains and territories lead to three different types of agri-food systems: Closed LAFS: local agricultural outputs are processed by local food industries (mainly Small and Medium Enterprises) and are purchased at local level (mainly by local consumers). Open LAFS: agricultural outputs are not processed by local food industries and are purchased by non-local consumers (or can be purchase anywhere). Mixed Systems: a coexistence of Closed and Open LAFS. • Within the S2F project we will consider the links between the territory and the food chain, embedded in the LAFS, and the implications regarding their sustainability. • The LAFS concept provides the criteria to address the identification and the recognition of the boundaries of the LAFS area according to the characteristics of the FQS considered in the research activity: For GI productions (PDO, PGI and TSG), the LAFS is represented by the municipalities identified in the official code of practice that is part of the EU regulation published on the DOOR database; For organic products, the LAFS is not officially defined and the suggested criteria refer to the region where producers carry out their production and commercial activities; For SFSC products, in the absence of a legislative reference, the definition of the LAFS refers to the region that includes the production and consumption area that, necessarily, are contiguous to each other. In the real world, different FQS can overlap each other, generating a hybrid FQS framework (e.g.: organic-GI; Organic-SFSC, GI-SFSC; Organic-SFSC-GI). In this case, the dominant criterion is the presence of a Designation. When the GI is not considered, the dominant criterion is the SFSC. • In the S2F project, the link between quality schemes and the territory is considered as follows: Closed LAFS: all the inputs come from the territory and all the output is purchased within the territory in local markets, e.g. for SFSCs and Short Food Geographical Indications (SF-GIs), in other words SF-PDOs. Open LAFS: upstream and downstream elements of the chain are not bounded by the territory, as a consequences inputs can come from outside of the area as for some PGIs and Organic productions. In this cluster, most of the output is purchased in distant markets that can be “domestic” or “global” in nature (when consumers are in different regions with different market rules; i.e., extra-EU); Mixed LAFS: in this cluster for some FQSs some inputs can come from others regions, as for PGIs and Organic products. Moreover, most of the output is purchased in local markets but part of the outputs is also sold in “domestic” markets (when consumers are in different regions but with the same market rules, i.e., in the EU). • The level of embeddedness of the value chain with respect to the LAFS creates different categories of markets: local to local (i.e., the case of SFSC and some PSFP); local to domestic (i.e., the case of GIs and Organic); local to global (i.e., the case of GIs), and determines different (public and private) strategies and impacts (Vandecandelaere et al., 2010; Torres Salcido and Muchnik, 2012, Fischer, 2012). • In this framework, GIs, Organic, SFSC and PSFP products can benefit from the LAFS environment (reputation, institutions and governance actions) and will generate impacts, affecting sustainability. Furthermore, Convention Theory and Cultural Adaptation Work represent important methodological tools useful to evaluate how quality and management systems contribute to sustainability

In search of effective therapies to overcome resistance to Temozolomide in brain tumours

Glioblastoma multiforme is the most common and lethal brain tumour-type. The current standard of care includes Temozolomide (TMZ) chemotherapy. However, inherent and acquired resistance to TMZ thwart successful treatment. The direct repair protein methylguanine DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) removes the cytotoxic O6-methylguanine (O6-MeG) lesion delivered by TMZ and so its expression by tumours confers TMZ-resistance. DNA mismatch repair (MMR) is essential to process O6-MeG adducts and MMR-deficiency leads to tolerance of lesions, resistance to TMZ and further DNA mutations. In this article, two strategies to overcome TMZ resistance are discussed: (1) synthesis of imidazotetrazine analogues - designed to retain activity in the presence of MGMT or loss of MMR; (2) preparation of imidazotetrazine-nanoparticles to deliver TMZ preferably to the brain and tumour site. Our promising results encourage belief in a future where better prognoses exist for patients diagnosed with this devastating disease

Measuring the economic, environmental, and social sustainability of short food supply chains

The production and distribution of food are among the hot topics debated in the context of sustainable development. Short food supply chains (SFSCs) are now widely believed to be more sustainable in comparison to mass food delivery systems. To date, very little quantitative evidence exists on the impacts of various types of food supply chains. Using a cross-sectional quantitative approach, this study assesses the sustainability of distribution channels in short and long food supply chains based on 208 food producers across seven countries: France, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, the United Kingdom, and Vietnam. Ten distribution channel types are used in this study. To provide a comprehensive sustainability assessment, a set of economic, social, and environmental indicators are applied. Indicators commonly used in the literature are used, supported by original indicators constructed specifically for the present study. In total, 486 chains are examined and the study confirms that individual producers participate simultaneously in several, short and long chains. Participation in SFSCs is beneficial for producers from an economic perspective. SFSCs allow producers to capture a large proportion of margin otherwise absorbed by different intermediaries. It appears, however, that 'longer' supply channels generate lower environmental impacts per unit of production when measured in terms of food miles and carbon footprint. Finally, ambiguous results are found regarding social dimension, with significant differences across types of chains

The Carbon and Land Footprint of Certified Food Products

The carbon and land footprint of 26 certified food products - geographical indications and organic products and their conventional references are assessed. This assessment goes beyond existing literature by (1) designing a calculation method fit for the comparison between certified food and conventional production, (2) using the same calculation method and parameters for 52 products - 26 Food Quality Schemes and their reference products - to allow for a meaningful comparison, (3) transparently documenting this calculation method and opening access to the detailed results and the underlying data, and (4) providing the first assessment of the carbon and land footprint of geographical indications. The method used is Life Cycle Assessment, largely relying on the Cool Farm Tool for the impact assessment. The most common indicator of climate impact, the carbon footprint expressed per ton of product, is not significantly different between certified foods and their reference products. The only exception to this pattern are vegetal organic products, whose carbon footprint is 16% lower. This is because the decrease in greenhouse gas emissions from the absence of mineral fertilizers is never fully offset by the associated lower yield. The climate impact of certified food per hectare is however 26% than their reference and their land footprint is logically 24% higher. Technical specifications directly or indirectly inducing a lower use of mineral fertilizers are a key driver of this pattern. So is yield, which depends both on terroir and farming practices. Overall, this assessment reinforces the quality policy of the European Union: promoting certified food is not inconsistent with mitigating climate change

Strengthening European Food Chain Sustainability by Quality and Procurement Policy: Methods and indicators for measuring the social, environmental and economic impacts of food quality schemes

The present methodological handbook provides the methodologies which will be applied in each work package of the Strength2Food project. In particular, it contains a list of indicators on how to assess sustainability in food and agro-food supply chains. This methodological handbook aims at facilitating the task for field studies, both proposing several prioritizations (indicator, variable, value chain level), detailing how we will combine relatively common variables (eg., number of animals per hectare, …) into indicators (eg., carbon footprint) and indicating how we will provide default values for the majority of the requested variables (for one indicator, providing only 2-3 case-specific values and relying on default values for the other variables is enough to obtain a case-specific indicator). Methods and issues specific to each workpackage are also discussed in dedicated sections and the description of each indicator include a description of whether and how the indicator will be applied to Food Quality Schemes (WP5), Public Sector Procurement Policies (WP6) and Short Food Supply Chains (WP7)

Foodmiles: The Logistics of Food Chains Applied to Food Quality Schemes

This paper estimates the foodmiles (embedded distances) and transport-related carbon emissions of 27 Food Quality Scheme (FQS) products-Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), Protected Geographical Indications (PGI) and organic- A nd their reference products. It goes further than the existing literature by adopting a value chain perspective, instead of the traditional consumer perspective, and focusing on FQS products. The same methodology is applied across all the case studies. The article specifically investigates the determinants of differences between FQS and their references. FQS products travel significantly shorter distances (-30%) and generate significantly lower transport-related emissions (-23%) than conventional food products. The differences are even greater for vegetal and organic products. The relationship between distance and transport-related emissions is not exactly proportional and highlights the importance of transport modes and logistics, in particular for exports and imports. Finally, we stress the importance of the spatial distribution of the different stages in the value chains (e.g. production, processing). PDO technical specifications delimit a geographical area for production and processing, thereby limiting distances and transport-related emissions compared to conventional food products, but also compared to other types of FQS