Mobile Technologies, Input Hypothesis and Second Language Acquisition in the Rwandan Context

The use of technologies in education started in the 1950s specifically with the use of audio-visual tools in language learning. Those tools which were made of big heavy hardware with limited software, accessible only from a specific location, have currently evolved into handy portable and mobile devices which are accessible at any place and time with unlimited variety of software, and this gave birth to mobile-assisted language learning as a young field of study. As the world rapidly changes, there is a need for studies which integrate these technologies with the available traditional theories that were primarily based on traditional ways of teaching and learning. This article is an attempt to integrate the use of modern mobile technologies with Input Hypothesis of second language acquisition in the context of Rwanda, one of the monolingual world countries in matters of national language, but which use foreign languages for various purposes. Keywords: ICT in education; mobile assisted language learning; second language acquisition; mobile technologies in language learning (MTLL);  emerging technologies; input hypothesis&nbsp

An investigation into the effect of mobile-assisted language learning on Rwandan university students' proficiency in English as a foreign language

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2018.ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It is almost common knowledge that English is the most spoken language in the world, which is considered a global lingua franca, and which often offers a means of socio-economic mobility for its speakers (Crystal 2003; Samuelson and Freedman 2010). Because of this status, English has been adopted by many countries as their national and/or official language, and to serve as a medium of instruction at different levels of education, even though it is a foreign language in some of those countries, i.e. not spoken or even understood by a large part of the population (Nyika 2015). This implies that attaining a high level of proficiency in English remains an advantage, whereas not knowing the language at all or attaining a low level of proficiency in it, constitutes a disadvantage. However, in many countries such as Rwanda, attaining a high level of English proficiency is problematic, precisely because it is a foreign language despite being an official language (Kagwesage 2013). This means that learners are not exposed to a sufficient amount of English input, and there are very few to no opportunities for English output (i.e. actually using the language). The limited input which learners receive, comes from the formal language classroom, where learners are, in by far the majority of cases, taught by non-native speakers of English (Abbott, Sapsford and Rwirahira 2015). Furthermore, learners have access to limited conventional teaching-and-learning materials (such as printed books, journals and computers), and they do not get enough opportunities to practise English outside the classroom setting (Andersson and Rusanganwa 2011). In order to address this problem, and in conformity with the constructivist approach to language teaching and learning, this study investigated the contribution that mobile input can make to the attainment of a higher level of English proficiency, given the growing amount of research showing the value of mobile technologies in language learning (MTLL). 60 Kinyarwanda-speaking students studying at the University of Rwanda participated in the study, and were divided into four groups. Group 1 received training in the use of MTLL and then continued using these MTLL; Group 2 used MTLL without having received any training; Group 3 did not use MTLL but were provided with additional conventional material; and Group 4 neither used MTLL nor received any additional material. Data were collected by means of observation, a survey, an English language proficiency test, a discussion group with the participants and a semi-structured interview with a lecturer at the University of Rwanda. A careful analysis of the data showed that MTLL have a significant effect on the learners’ proficiency in English as a foreign language (EFL), and that the learners have positive attitudes towards MTLL and their integration into the language pedagogy. Finally, this study offers some practical suggestions regarding the incorporation of MTLL in formal language classrooms generally, but also more specifically in the case of EFL classrooms in African countries, where English is a foreign language as well as the country’s official language and the language of instruction.AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dit is algemeen bekend dat Engels die mees-gesproke taal ter wêreld is, ’n globale lingua franca, wat dikwels aan sy sprekers sosio-ekonomiese mobiliteit bied (Crystal 2003; Samuelson en Freedman 2010). As gevolg van hierdie status, is Engels deur baie lande tot hulle nasionale en/of amptelike taal verkies, sowel as die taal van onderrig, ten spyte daarvan dat die taal in sommige van hierdie lande ’n vreemdetaal is, wat ’n groot deel van die bevolking dus glad nie praat, of selfs verstaan, nie (Nyika 2015). Dit impliseer dat dit voordelig is om ‘n hoë vlak van vaardigheid in Engels te verwerf, terwyl dit ’n besliste nadeel is om die taal glad nie te ken nie of om slegs ’n lae vlak van vaardigheid daarin te verwerf. Dit is egter in baie lande, soos Rwanda, problematies om ’n hoë vaardigheidsvlak in Engels te verwerf, juis omdat die taal ’n vreemdetaal is ten spyte daarvan dat dit ook een van die land se amptelike tale is (Kagwesage 2013). Dit beteken dat leerders nie blootgestel word aan ’n toereikende hoeveelheid insette in die taal nie, en dat daar baie min, tot geen, geleenthede is om Engels te gebruik. Die beperkte insette wat leerders wel ontvang, kom van die formele taalklaskamer, waar leerders, in die meerderheid van gevalle, onderrig ontvang van ’n nie-moedertaalspreker van Engels (Abbott, Sapsford en Rwirahira 2015). Verder het leerders toegang tot beperkte konvensionele onderrig-en-leer materiaal (soos gedrukte boeke, joernale en rekenaars), en kry hulle nie voldoende geleenthede om Engels buite die klaskamer te oefen nie (Andersson en Rusanganwa 2011). Om hierdie probleem aan te spreek, en in ooreenstemming met die konstruktivistiese benadering tot taalonderrig en -leer, het hierdie studie ondersoek ingestel na die bydrae wat mobiele insette kan lewer tot die verwerwing van ’n hoër vaardigheidsvlak in Engels, gegee die toenemende hoeveelheid navorsing wat dui op die waarde van mobiele tegnologieë in taalleer (MTTL). 60 Kinyarwandasprekende studente aan die Universiteit van Rwanda het aan die studie deelgeneem, en is opgedeel in vier groepe. Groep 1 het onderrig ontvang in die gebruik van MTTL en het MTTL aanhou gebruik; Groep 2 het MTTL gebruik sonder om onderrig daarin te ontvang; Groep 3 het nie MTTL gebruik nie, maar is voorsien van addisionele konvensionele leermateriaal; en Groep 4 het nie MTTL gebruik of addisionele materiaal ontvang nie. Data is ingesamel deur middel van waarneming, ’n opname, ’n Engelse taalvaardigheidstoets, ’n groepbespreking met die deelnemers en ’n semi-gestruktureerde onderhoud met ’n dosent aan die Universiteit van Rwanda. ’n Sorgvuldige analise van die data het aangedui dat MTTL ’n beduidende effek het op leerders se vaardigheid in Engels as vreemdetaal (EVT), en dat leerders ’n positiewe houding het teenoor MTTL en die integrasie daarvan by die taalpedagogie. Laastens bied hierdie studie ook praktiese voorstelle vir die integrasie van MTTL by formele taalklaskamers oor die algemeen, maar ook meer spesifiek in die geval van EVT-klaskamers in Afrikalande, waar Engels ’n vreemdetaal is, sowel as die land se amptelike taal en die taal van onderrig

An investigation into the contribution of mobile-assisted language learning to the acquisition of English as a second language in Rwanda

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2015ENGLISH ABSTRACT : In developing and developed countries, a foreign language can be used as a second language, and be attributed various functions and statuses such as being an official language, and being used as a language of instruction at some, or all, levels of education. In Rwanda, one of East Africa’s developing countries, for example, English has gained the status of official language and is used as a language of instruction at all levels of formal education. In this context, the successful acquisition of English can contribute to Rwandans’ advancement both academically and professionally. Different theories and hypotheses have been introduced to explain how a second language can be successfully acquired or learnt. Some of them, such as the input hypothesis, constructivism and connectionism, state that second language acquisition or learning occurs when a learner is exposed to rich, regular and comprehensible input. According to these theories, the main problem that most second language learners face is the lack of a relevant input. Despite being a young field of research, mobile-assisted language learning has the potential to overcome this problem and, therefore, to contribute to the performance of second language learners and users, either in their studies or in other activities in which they are required to use the second language. With the integration of mobile-assisted language learning and second language acquisition theories, this research focused on the acquisition of English as second language in the context of a developing country. In addition to making a contribution to the available literature in the field, the objective of this research was to examine the extent to which using mobile technological devices can contribute to the successful acquisition of English at university level by exposing the students to rich and comprehensible input.AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING : In ontwikkelende en ontwikkelde lande kan 'n vreemde taal wat as 'n tweede taal gebruik word verskeie funksies en statusse verkry, byvoorbeeld om as amptelike taal en as taal van onderrig op sommige, of alle, vlakke van onderwys te funksioneer. In Rwanda, een van die Oos-Afrikaanse ontwikkelende lande, het Engelse die status van amptelike taal en word dit as die taal van onderrig op alle vlakke van formele onderwys gebruik. In hierdie konteks, kan die suksesvolle verwerwing van Engels bydra tot Rwandese sevooruitgang, beide akademies en professioneel. Verskillende teorieë en hipoteses is al voorgehou om te verduidelik hoe 'n tweede taal suksesvol verwerf kan word. Sommige, soos die toevoerhipotese, konstruktivisme en konnektivisme, stel dat tweedetaalverwerwing plaasvind wanneer 'n leerder blootgestel word aan ryk, gereëlde en verstaanbare toevoer. Volgens hierdie teorieë is die grootste probleem waarvoor meeste tweedetaalleerders te staan kom die gebrek aan toepaslike toevoer. Ten spyte van die feit dat mobiele bygestaande taalaanleer ‘n relatief jong navorsingsveld is, beskik dit oor die potensiaal om by te dra tot die sukses van tweedetaalleerders en -gebruikers, hetsy in hul studies of in ander aktiwiteite waarin daar van hulle verwag word om die tweede taal te gebruik. Deur die integrasie van mobiele taalverwerwings- en tweedetaalverwerwings-teorieë, fokus hierdie navorsingstesis op die verwerwing van Engels as tweede taal in die konteks van 'n ontwikkelende land. Bykomend tot 'n bydrae wat hierdie navorsingstesis tot die beskikbare literatuur in die veld kan toevoeg, is die doel ook om die mate waarin die gebruik van mobiele tegnologiese apparatuur kan bydra tot die suksesvolle verwerwing van Engels op universiteitsvlak deur studente bloot te stel aan ryk en verstaanbaar toevoer te ondersoek

Digital Native(ness), Mobile Technologies and Language Proficiency in Underdeveloped Countries

Various studies have elaborated on the concept of ‘digital native(ness)’, i.e. (an identity of) the generation of students who were born during the digital technology era, i.e. from the 1980s onwards (Prensky 2001). Those studies claim that digital natives have been exposed to modern technologies, and thus are familiar with using them in their everyday activities (Dang 2013; Jacobson & Turner 2010). Those studies do not go beyond the access to and the general use of technologies. They ignore the fact that the ability to use technologies for personal purposes does not represent the ability to use them for educational and other specialized purposes (Stockwell & Hubbard 2013:4). Furthermore, there is a gap in terms of technological devices and geographical locations which were considered by those studies (Burston 2014; Thinyane 2010; Brown & Czerniewicz 2010). In these regards, by using a proficiency test and a survey with 60 digital natives from an underdeveloped country, this study investigated the effect of mobile technologies in language learning (MTLL) on English proficiency. In terms of English proficiency, this study found no significant difference among the participants, although some of them were making use of MTLL whereas others were not. With the fact that MTLL have the potential to improve the language proficiency (Park & Slater 2014; Alotaibi, Alamer & Al-Khalifa 2015; Stockwell & Liu 2015), this article recommends how teachers should provide guidance and assistance to the learners in order to benefit from modern technologies