Multi-proxy analysis suggests Late Pleistocene affinities of human skeletal remains attributed to Balzi Rossi

In two publications from 1967 and 1971, M. Masali described human skeletal remains presumed to have been found in the Balzi Rossi caves (Ventimiglia, Italy), based on a signed note dated to 1908. Since then, the remains - dubbed "Conio's Finds" and preserved at the University of Torino - had not been further studied. We performed a multidisciplinary investigation aimed at clarifying the geographical and chronological attribution of these specimens. Collagen extraction for AMS dating was unsuccessful, but we obtained two direct dates on the best- preserved crania via 231Pa/235U direct gamma-ray spectrometry (10,500±2,000 years BP and 12,500±2,500 years BP). We analyzed the metrics and morphology of the crania and femora by comparing them with samples belonging to the Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods, and evidenced that the "Conio's Finds" are morphologically more compatible with a Late Pleistocene rather than Holocene attribution. We analyzed the literature regarding the history of excavations at Balzi Rossi, and we propose that - if any credence should be given to the note accompanying the material - the remains may have been found in front of Grotta dei Fanciulli or Grotta del Caviglione, in the redeposited soil dug up during the installation of lime kilns carried out between the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. These hypotheses may be tested in the future by comparing the speleothem deposited on one of the crania and the remaining deposit at the site

Mobility and subsistence economy: A diachronic comparison between two groups settled in the same geographical area (Liguria, Italy)

The purpose of this article is to investigate temporal shifts in skeletal robusticity to infer behavioral changes in two populations (Neolithic, NEOL and Medieval, MED) settled in the same geographic area but involved in different subsistence economies (pastoralism and coastal resources exploitation). This comparison allows us to test the hypothesis that occupational stress and mobility in the same environment produce predictable changes in the robusticity of both upper and lower limbs. Results show a lower degree of humeral robusticity and a similar degree of humeral asymmetry in the two sexes in the MED population. These results are consistent with the relatively less stressful subsistence economy documented in the MED population relative to that of the NEOL. Lower limb results suggest that femoral robusticity does not correlate directly with the level of logistical mobility, but is instead due to the summation of several diverse factors that place biomechanical loads on the hindlimb, particularly unevenness of the terrain. However, female femoral gracility seems to indicate that below a certain ‘‘threshold’’ of mobility, i.e., movement over the natural terrain, terrain conformation is no longer the main contributing factor to femoral robusticity. The femoral shape index Ix/Iy declines through time, particularly in males. This agrees with the expected mobility of the samples based on archaeological and historical data, providing further evidence on the reliability of this index in inferring terrestrial mobility

Can fibular robusticity be used to infer mobility patterns in past populations?

Because of their role in weight bearing, the bones normally used to infer mobility patterns in past populations are the femur and the tibia. Nevertheless, studies of living hominoids and modern human athletes have demonstrated that the structural properties of the fibula are significantly correlated with mobility patterns. This study assess variation in fibular cross-sectional properties (CA, Imax, Imin, and J) within a sample of 155 individuals from the Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP), Neolithic and Iron Age of Italy, Medieval Germany, and contemporary athletes (long distance runners, field hockey players) and controls. The aim of this research is to investigate the correspondence between fibular diaphyseal properties and inferred mobility patterns in past populations. Cross-sectional measurements were taken at the midshaft, and both fibular rigidity and the ratio of tibial to fibular rigidity were analyzed (see Marchi, 2007). LUP, Neolithic and Iron Age samples display the highest relative fibular rigidity, comparable to that of modern hockey players. The pronounced fibular rigidity associated with hockey players is explained as the skeletal adaptation to habitual multi-directional lower limb loading associated with their sport. The LUP, Neolithic and Iron Age individuals are thought to have been very active and resided in a region of uneven terrain; therefore the requirement for repetitive directional changes throughout the gait cycle where likely frequent. It is suggested that the inclusion of the fibula in analyses of skeletal and fossil remains will allow for a more nuanced appreciation of the influence of mobility patterns on bioarchaeological populations

Mobility in Neolithic Liguria (Italy): a biomechanical approach

Traditional approaches to the analysis of mobility in Neolithic samples from Liguria (Italy) provide equivocal results. Evidence of high levels of locomotory stress provided by lower limb muscolo-skeletal markers is not fully supported by external diaphyseal measures of robusticity. To clarify these contrasting findings, we use cross sectional geometric properties of the mid-shaft femur. The Neolithic sample includes eight males and eight females found in a restricted area (Finale Ligure, Savona) and dated to the fourth millennium BC. Samples of Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP) and Mesolithic European femora are used for comparisons. While all female indicators of bending strength decrease steadily through time, Neolithic male values approach those of LUP and even show an increase relative to the Mesolithic group. This result suggests a level of mechanical stress for Neolithic males that is unexpected, given patterns observed on skeletal populations and theoretical expectations for decreased mobility with the advent of food-producing economies. Interestingly, however, expectations are fulfilled at regional level, i.e. when comparing Neolithic males and the last hunter-gatherers from the same area. Liguria is a mountainous region and this finding points once again to the importance of the nature of the terrain for lower limb remodeling. Moreover, the marked sexual dimorphism characterizing the Neolithic sample suggests quite different male-female mobility patterns, probably reflecting the importance of pastoral activity, well-documented in the Ligurian archeological record

A biomechanical approach to the reconstruction of activity patterns in Neolithic Western Liguria (Italy)

This paper investigates the changes in upper and lower limb robusticity and activity patterns that accompanied the transition to a Neolithic subsistence in western Liguria (Italy). Diaphyseal robusticity measures were obtained from cross-sectional geometric properties of the humerus and femur in a sample of 16 individuals (eight males and eight females) dated to about 6,000– 5,500 BP. Comparisons with European Late Upper Paleolithics (LUP) indicate increased humeral robusticity in Neolithic Ligurian (NEOL) males, but not in females, with a significant reduction in right-left differences in both sexes. Sexual dimorphism in robusticity increases in upper and lower limb bones. Regarding the femur, while all female indicators of bending strength decrease steadily through time, values for NEOL males approach those of LUP. This suggests high, and unexpected, levels of mechanical stress for NEOL males, probably reflecting the effects of the mountainous terrain on lower limb remodeling. Comparisons between NEOL males and a small sample of LUP hunter-gatherers from the same area support this interpretation. In conclusion, cross-sectional geometry data indicate that the transition to Neolithic economies in western Liguria did not reduce functional requirements in males, and suggest a marked sexual division of labor involving a more symmetrical use of the upper limb, and different male-female levels of locomotory stress. When articulated with archaeological, faunal, paleopathological, and ethnographic evidence, these results support the hypothesis of repetitive, bimanual use of axes tied to pastoral activities in males, and of more sedentary tasks linked to agriculture in females

Changes in skeletal robusticity in an Iron Age agropastoral group: the Samnites from the Alfedena necropolis (Abruzzo, Central Italy)

Cross-sectional geometrical (CSG) properties of an Iron Age Samnite group from the Alfedena necropolis (Abruzzo, Italy, 2600-2400 B.P.) are compared with a Ligurian Neolithic sample (6000-5500 B.P.). In the period under examination, Samnites were organized in a tribal confederation led by patrilinear aristocracies, indicating incipient social stratification. In comparison, Neolithic society lacked clear signs of social hierarchy. The subsistence of both groups was mainly based on pastoralism and agriculture, but changes in habitual behavior are expected due to the socio-economic transformations that characterized the Iron Age. The Samnites' warlike ideology suggests that unimanual weapon-use and training would have become frequent for males. The intensification of agriculture and the adoption of transhumant pastoralism, performed by a smaller subset of the population, likely led to a lower average level of logistic mobility. The strongly genderized ideology of the period suggests a strict sexual division of labor, with women primarily performing sedentary tasks. CSG properties based on periosteal contours were calculated for humeri, femora, and tibiae (N = 61). Results corroborated the expectations: Alfedena males show substantial humeral bilateral asymmetry, indicating prevalent use of one arm, likely due to weapon training. In both sexes lower limb results indicate reduced mobility with respect to the Neolithic group. Sexual dimorphism is significant in both humeral asymmetry and lower limb indicators of mobility. Although both groups could be broadly defined as agropastoral based on archeological and historical evidence, CSG analysis confirmed important differences in habitual behavior. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Biomechanical approach to the reconstruction of activity patterns in Neolithic western Liguria, Italy

This paper investigates the changes in upper and lower limb robusticity and activity patterns that accompanied the transition to a Neolithic subsistence in western Liguria (Italy). Diaphyseal robusticity measures were obtained from cross-sectional geometric properties of the humerus and femur in a sample of 16 individuals (eight males and eight females) dated to about 6,000-5,500 BP. Comparisons with European Late Upper Paleolithics (LUP) indicate increased humeral robusticity in Neolithic Ligurian (NEOL) males, but not in females, with a significant reduction in right-left differences in both sexes. Sexual dimorphism in robusticity increases in upper and lower limb bones. Regarding the femur, while all female indicators of bending strength decrease steadily through time, values for NEOL males approach those of LUP. This suggests high, and unexpected, levels of mechanical stress for NEOL males, probably reflecting the effects of the mountainous terrain on lower limb remodeling. Comparisons between NEOL males and a small sample of LUP hunter-gatherers from the same area support this interpretation. In conclusion, cross-sectional geometry data indicate that the transition to Neolithic economies in western Liguria did not reduce functional requirements in males, and suggest a marked sexual division of labor involving a more symmetrical use of the upper limb, and different male-female levels of locomotory stress. When articulated with archaeological, faunal, paleopathological, and ethnographic evidence, these results support the hypothesis of repetitive, bimanual use of axes tied to pastoral activities in males, and of more sedentary tasks linked to agriculture in females

Biomechanical approach to the reconstruction of activity patterns in Neolithic western Liguria, Italy

This paper investigates the changes in upper and lower limb robusticity and activity patterns that accompanied the transition to a Neolithic subsistence in western Liguria (Italy). Diaphyseal robusticity measures were obtained from cross-sectional geometric properties of the humerus and femur in a sample of 16 individuals (eight males and eight females) dated to about 6,000-5,500 BP. Comparisons with European Late Upper Paleolithics (LUP) indicate increased humeral robusticity in Neolithic Ligurian (NEOL) males, but not in females, with a significant reduction in right-left differences in both sexes. Sexual dimorphism in robusticity increases in upper and lower limb bones. Regarding the femur, while all female indicators of bending strength decrease steadily through time, values for NEOL males approach those of LUP. This suggests high, and unexpected, levels of mechanical stress for NEOL males, probably reflecting the effects of the mountainous terrain on lower limb remodeling. Comparisons between NEOL males and a small sample of LUP hunter-gatherers from the same area support this interpretation. In conclusion, cross-sectional geometry data indicate that the transition to Neolithic economies in western Liguria did not reduce functional requirements in males, and suggest a marked sexual division of labor involving a more symmetrical use of the upper limb, and different male-female levels of locomotory stress. When articulated with archaeological, faunal, paleopathological, and ethnographic evidence, these results support the hypothesis of repetitive, bimanual use of axes tied to pastoral activities in males, and of more sedentary tasks linked to agriculture in females