The way to the compulsory education (vseobuch): achievements and challenges in the development of public education in rural areas of Perm province in the second half of the XIX – early XX century

The aim of the publication is the analysis of formation and development of the primary school in the post-reform period in rural areas of the Perm province in terms of its strategic perspective which suggests transition to compulsory primary education as an integral part of the process of creating social and cultural environment of modern times. Methods. Education is observed in terms of institutional and systemic approaches, and the post-reform stage of its development is analyzed in the context of the modernization theory. Historical-dynamic analysis and comparative-historical method are mostly used when systemizing factual data. Results. The article reveals basic stages and characteristics of elementary public schools in the Perm province countryside during pre-vseobuch (compulsory education) period. The dynamics of the educational process in reference to the number of schools and enrollments is shown; the scale of the process and the participation of the «zemstvo system» (i.e. district council) and the Orthodox Church in it are estimated. The clergy’s view on parochial schools as a special type of educational institutions is also described. Difficulties faced by public school policy during the implementation of rural compulsory education in the province are marked. It is shown that to achieve total literacy in the rural areas in the pre-revolutionary period was impossible in spite of the accelerated speed of the school education and substantial progress in the organization of the compulsory primary education. Scientific novelty. Turning to the history of compulsory elementary schools in terms of the «compulsory education paradigm» offers the possibility to set clear criteria for assessing the level of development of the education system and show how the compulsory education environment was formed. Practical significance. The results of the study and the facts introduced into scientific use can be adopted as a part of academic courses on the history and sociology of educationЦель статьи – анализ становления и тенденций развития в пореформенный период второй половины XIX – начала XX в. народной школы в сельской местности Пермской губернии с точки зрения ее стратегической перспективы – перехода к всеобщему начальному образованию как неотъемлемой части процесса создания социокультурной среды нового времени. Методы. Образование рассматривается с помощью институционального и системного подходов, а этап его развития в пореформенный период анализируется в контексте теории модернизации. При систематизации фактического материала чаще всего использовались историко-динамический анализ и сравнительно-исторический метод. Результаты. Выявлены основные этапы и характерные черты развития начальной народной школы в сельской местности Пермской губернии до появления планов всеобуча и во время их реализации. Определена динамика образовательного процесса по числу учебных заведений и численности учащихся, установлены масштабы и участие в нем земства и православной церкви. Охарактеризован взгляд духовенства на церковно-приходские школы как особый тип образовательных учреждений. Обозначены трудности, с которыми государственная школьная политика столкнулась при реализации в сельской местности губернии планов всеобуча. Показано, что, несмотря на ускорение темпов развития школьного дела и значительные успехи в организации начальной массовой общеобразовательной школы, достигнуть всеобщего образования на селе в дореволюционный период не удалось. Научная новизна. Обращение к истории начальной народной школы в свете «парадигмы всеобуча» задает четкий критерий оценки уровня развития системы образования и показывает, каким образом формировалась тотальная образовательная среда. Практическая значимость. Результаты исследования и введенные в научный оборот факты могут быть использованы при подготовке учебных курсов по истории и социологии образовани

COOPERATION BETWEEN THE MINISTRY OF NATIONAL EDUCATION AND LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT BODIES OF THE PERM PROVINCE DURING THE PERIOD “PREPARATORY WORK FOR THE COMPULSORY EDUCATION INTRODUCTION”

Introduction. In the history of education, there is still considerable shortfall of the question on mechanisms realization of the general literacy idea in Russia in the beginning of the last century, which gained its popularity around the world at the turn of the 19–20th centuries. Meanwhile, the stage of preparation for cosmopolitan diffusion of compulsory primary education in the Russian Empire, marked by emergence of the special bill drafted by the Ministry of National Education in 1907, is of great interest to the research of opportunities of interaction of the state institutes and regional local self-government bodies (Zemstvo in the Russian language). The aim of the publication is to show the efficiency of joint activities of local self-government bodies and national administrative bodies with reference to example of the system of primary national education formation during 1908–1913 in the Perm province. Methodology and research methods. The methodological base of the present research is based on: the “center-periphery” conceptual model; methods of the retrospective chronological analysis, synthesis, generalization and interpretation of archival documents.Results and scientific novelty. The methodological perspective of studying the history of primary schools organization in pre-revolutionary Russia is proved. The choice of regional (provincial) scale of this process enables to consider features of the public educational policy at the subcountry level; the center-periphery approach to the discussed subject makes it possible to understand more deeply the essence and purposes of the major educational reform. The assessment of the contents on the introduction of compulsory primary education in the Russian Empire is given; the draft bill established standards, new to educational practice, can be listed as follows: “normal duration of training”, “normal school age”, “normal number of children”, “normal school area” (“normal school radius”) and “normal school kit”. The key value and importance of the document consisted in differentiation of powers: in contrast to the Ministry of National Education, the structures of territorial and municipal government bodies had greater freedom of action and were assigned a leading part to put the idea of a compulsory education (Vseobuch in the Russian language) into reality.Dynamics of statistical data on financial government aid to national education is analysed. Activities of all-imperial and provincial school building funds are characterized. It is proved that the essential growth of public financial recourses against the background of vigorous territorial activity not only led to rapid increase in number of schools, but also turned them from local-regional into ministerial-local ones. The conclusion is drawn that due to close cooperation of the Ministry of National Education with local government bodies, the period 1907– 1913 was a key stage of an institutionalization of the Russian compulsory education during the pre-revolutionary times.Practical significance. The results of the research can be adopted when preparing academic courses on the History and Sociology of Education, as well as the Economics of Knowledge.Введение. В истории образования остается недостаточно освещенным и малоизученным вопрос о механизмах реализации в России начала прошлого века идеи всеобщей грамотности, набиравшей популярность во всем мире на рубеже XIX–XX вв. Между тем, этап подготовки к повсеместному распространению в Российской империи всеобщего начального обучения детей, ознаменованный появлением в 1907 г. специального законопроекта, разработанного Министерством народного просвещения, представляет большой интерес для исследования возможностей взаимодействия государственных институтов и региональных органов местного самоуправления. Цель статьи – на примере становления в период 1908–1913 гг. системы начального народного образования в Пермской губернии показать эффективность совместной деятельности земских учреждений и государственных административных структур. Методология и методы. В работе использовались концептуальная модель «центр – периферия», методы ретроспективного хронологического анализа, синтеза, обобщения и интерпретации содержания архивных документов. Результаты и научная новизна. Обоснован методологический ракурс изучения истории организации начальных школ в дореволюционной России. Выбор регионального (губернского) масштаба этого процесса разрешает рассмотреть особенности государственной образовательной политики на субстрановом уровне, а центр-периферийный подход к обсуждаемой теме позволяет глубже понять сущность и цели важнейшей образовательной реформы. Дана оценка содержания законопроекта о введении всеобщего начального обучения в Российской империи, который устанавливал новые для образовательной практики нормативы: «нормальную продолжительность обучения», «нормальный школьный возраст», «нормальное число детей», «нормальный школьный район» («нормальный школьный радиус») и «школьный комплект». Но главная ценность и значимость документа состояла в разграничении полномочий между Министерством народного просвещения и структурами уездного и городского самоуправления, которым отводилась ведущая роль в воплощении идеи всеобуча в жизнь и предоставлялась большая свобода действий. Проанализирована динамика статистических данных о финансовой правительственной помощи народному образованию. Охарактеризована деятельность общеимперского и губернского школьно-строительных фондов. Доказано, что существенный рост казенных денежных средств на фоне активной земской деятельности не только привел к стремительному увеличению количества школ, но и превратил их из земско-сельских в министерско-земские. Сделан вывод о том, что благодаря тесному сотрудничеству Министерства народного просвещения с органами местного самоуправления 1907–1913 гг. были ключевым этапом институализации российского всеобуча в дореволюционный период. Практическая значимость. Результаты исследования могут быть использованы при подготовке учебных курсов по истории и социологии образования, а также экономике знания. 

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The nucleation in oligomer melts

Impulse NMR has been used to study the crystallization conditions of oligoethylene- and oligo-butylene adipates as a function of the melt temperature at constant crystallization temperature. Residual crystal structures have been found in the melts above the melting temperature; these act as nuclei in the subsequent crystallization. The Avrami equation describing the crystallization kinetics from the melt has been modified on the basis of this result; in addition to the classical and homogeneous nucleation there is one in which the crystal nuclei are the residual crystal structures already existing in the melt. © 1978