Intensification of smallholder livestock production, is it sustainable?

This paper discusses sustainability perspectives of intensification of different types of smallholder livestock production. A main sustainability issue of intensification is its contribution to household incomes. Smallholder dairying substantially increases incomes, despite pressing technical sustainability issues. Trade-offs are that it is not an option for the really resource-poor households, and its impact on different environmental and societal sustainability issues. Intensification of small animal systems appears to have a low potential to substantially increase incomes. Livestock intensification strategies have to meet the environmental and societal demands

Hair coat characteristics in Friesian heifers in the Netherlands and Kenya : experimental data and a review of literature

The export of about 2600 Friesian heifers to Kenya between 1971-1973 provided an opportunity of studying the adaptation problems experienced by these heifers. Within the framework of the NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation) a research project entitled 'Adaptation of Dutch Friesian heifers in the Tropics, with special reference to Kenya' was initiated. This project studied aspects such as health parameters, reproduction and growth in the imported Friesians. Under the aegis of the project we studied the changes in cattle hair coat characteristics. This topic was chosen for 3 main reasons:- The characteristics and the cyclic changes of the hair coat are important in the ecology of cattle.- Various authors have drawn attention to the importance of hair coat type as an indicator of the ability of beef cattle to adapt to tropical climates.- There were no data on adaptation problems, with regard to hair coats, of dairy cattle.To complement the Kenyan data, I studied hair coat characteristics in Friesian heifers in the Netherlands. By thoroughly reviewing existing literature on hair follicles, sweat glands and hair coat characteristics in cattle, I obtained data that could be compared with the data I collected in Kenya and the Netherlands.The literature review (Chapter 2.) comprises a résumé of the anatomy and physiology of the hair follicle and sweat gland (section 2.1.4.); a summary of hair follicle and sweat gland characteristics (section 2.2.12.), and hair coat characteristics of cattle (section 2.3.13.); a summary of coat shedding, the effects of photoperiod, temperature and nutrition (section 2.4.4.); and the major conclusions on how hair follicle, sweat gland and hair coat characteristics relate to heat exchange, performance and adaptation (section 2.5.5.).Chapter 3 describes the experiments. The methods of measuring hair coat characteristics are given in paragraph 3.1. The hair samples were measured for medullation, hair diameter, hair length, melanin content, hair density and percentage of anagen hair roots. Our methods were generally the same as those reported in the literature, except for those we used to measure medullation and hair diameter.The results of the research on hair coat characteristics of Friesian heifers in the Netherlands are described in 3.2. In this investigation 30 heifers were sampled at regular intervals. Supplementary observations on shedding of the coat were made on 6 heifers. We found that:- In the same animal white hair samples were more medullated than black hair samples.- The changes in various hair coat characteristics did not run parallel in all body regions. In summer the coats were uniform over the body. In autumn and winter, however, various hair coat characteristics varied significantly between body regions.- All the characteristics considered changed with time. Large seasonal changes were found in percentage of medullated hairs, hair length and melanin content. The seasonal cycle in percentage of medullated hairs - from 50% in winter to 90% in summer -, which represents the seasonal variation in coat composition, was closely related to change in daylength.- Large changes in coat composition occurred in spring and in autumn. In the heifers used in the shedding experiment in autumn about 50% of the hairs were shed and the increase in hair length resulted from the growth of the 'summer' hairs.- The melanin content was found to be related to body weight gain.The hair coat characteristics of Friesian heifers after introduction into Kenya are described in paragraph 3.3. In a preliminary study we made measurements on 25 heifers brought to Kitale in October 1972. The main study was made on 27 heifers brought to Kitale in October 1973. The most important results were:- The percentage of medullated hairs remained at the same low level (40-50%) during the first 12 months; only after this period it increased gradually.A few months after arrival in Kenya the percentage of fragmentary medullated hairs rose rapidly.- It was striking that most animals grew very dense coats in the first six months in Kenya.- Both hair diameter and hair length decreased in the first 6 months in Kenya.- Only in those periods when the heifers experienced a rather low plane of nutrition did some hair coat characteristics correlate with body weight gain. Chapter 4 discusses some results from the experimental heifers in the Netherlands and from the heifers examined in Kenya, and presents our conclusions.The main outcomes were:- Contrary to the practice, in comparative studies black and white hairs should be studied separately. Moreover the body region chosen for sampling may significantly affect the results.- The experimental heifers in the Netherlands adapted to the summer conditions by developing a short, medullated, and less dense hair coat. The seasonal rhythm in coat composition is probably due to changes in photoperiod acting through the endocrine system.- Our results on coat shedding do not agree with those from Australia mentioned in the literature. The sequence of events in temperate zones is probably:a. in spring most of the hairs are replaced: the non-medullated hairs disappear almost entirely from the coat and almost all the new hairs are medullated;b. in autumn about 50% of the hairs are replaced: non-medullated hairs appear in the coat again, the hair density increases, and the 'summer' hairs increase markedly in length;c. some replacement occurs continuously throughout the year.- In Kenya the equatorial photoperiod probably upsets this cycle in the imported heifers. The low level of medullated hairs during the first 12 months, the marked increase in fragmentary medullated hairs, and the high hair densities in the first 6 months (mainly due to the fact that the non-medullated hairs were shed only very gradually) show that these animals had difficulties in acclimatizing. It took about 18 months before the coat composition of the heifers transferred to Kenya was about the same as that of the heifers in the Netherlands in summer. These results endorse YEATES'S (1958) view that the equatorial light environment must be regarded as an extra setback to the successful adaptation of European cattle to hot equatorial regions.- Contrary to the assumptions in the literature that both hair follicle and hair density decrease as the animal grows and that hair density is not subject to seasonal changes, our findings suggest that a number of follicles producing non- medullated hairs remain empty in the summer months and that the number of empty follicles per unit area is inversely proportional to the number of non- medullated hairs per unit area. This would partly explain the surprizing high hair densities in the first 6 months in Kenya, because in the heifers in Kenya dense hair coats tended to be composed of more non-medullated hairs. We have indications that in animals with extremely high hair densities a number of follicles contain two hairs. So hair follicle population figures are not equivalent to hair population figures.- Ambient temperature is related to hair length. The influence of temperature may be mediated by the thyroid.- Plane of nutrition is probably (like in sheep and men) directly related to hair diameter.- There was no evidence for a strong link between body weight gain and hair coat characteristics. In the Netherlands body weight gain was related to melanin content only; the significance of this relationship is not fully clear. The results in Kenya confirm the assumption of various workers that a medullated coat indicates capacity to react favourably under stressful conditions.- In the mild climatic conditions of Kitale the hair coat is probably not very important in relation to the thermal balance of the animal. In hot-dry and hot-wet climates heat problems may arise (at least in the first year after exportation) in animals that are transferred from the temperate to equatorial regions . This has to be investigated further.- Further research is also necessary to reveal the role of various hair coat characteristics on heat transfer. And it will be interesting to investigate the physiological mechanisms underlying the relationships between coat type and thrift in a tropical environment. This should be determined with animals kept under controlled conditions

Characteristics of feeding and breeding practices for intensification of smallholder dairy systems in the Kenya highlands

This study aimed at better understanding of the characteristics of feeding and breeding practices smallholder farmers adopt in intensifying their dairy production. Use of hired labour for fodder gathering, growing of fodder crops and purchase of feeds increased with increasing intensification, but Bos taurus breeds did not respond to increasing feeding intensification while Bos indicus cattle responded, calving at earlier age and yielding more milk. Overall, first calving occurred at 32 months, but days open prolonged to 250 days with milk yield of 4 litres per day of calving interval. A principal component analysis extracted six feeding and breeding components, explaining 71.79% of the total variations in feeding and breeding practices for dairy intensification. The six components were labelled: non- intensified feeding and breeding; breeding decisions based-intensification; high external resource based-intensification; moderate resource based-intensification; resource poor based-intensification; and moderate external resource based-intensification. These characteristics points to some `evolutionary process¿ of intensification involving feeding and breeding decisions, depending on the risk-bearing capacity of the household. Intensification enhancing interventions for smallholders need be considered in the context of the household economy. Interventions on feeding and breeding have to be packaged together holistically if intensification is to enhance productivity. A selective intervention on only one of these is associated with low productivity levels, only contributing to sustaining family subsistence livelihood

Botanical Knowledge and its Differentiation by Age, Gender and Ethnicity in Southwestern Niger

Indigenous knowledge is unevenly distributed. Individual knowledge level may be affected by many factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, profession, religious and cultural beliefs, abundance and usefulness of the species. This study documents indigenous knowledge of herbaceous and woody plant species of farmers and herders in southwestern Niger. Specifically, we examine the effects of age, gender, and ethnicity on knowledge of local vegetation. Results from the study showed that on average a higher proportion of woody species was identified by the respondents compared to herbaceous species. Both gender and ethnicity had a significant effect on the identification of herbaceous species but no effect on identification of woody species. Respondents in lower age group (10 to 30 years) identified lower number of species compared to other age classes. There seems to be a curvilinear relationship between age of respondents and number of plant species identified. Results from this study reaffirm the uneven distribution of indigenous knowledge within a given area due to social factors. The main challenge is how to incorporate these social differences in knowledge of native plant species into sustainable management and conservation of community natural resources

Disposal and replacement practices in Kenya’s smallholder dairy herds

The objectives of this study were to explore the possibilities for improving the breeding practices and developing policies in support of smallholder dairy producers in the central highlands of Kenya through analysing current disposal and replacement practices. Data were obtained from a cross-sectional characterization study. This began with a pilot survey in one district where 365 households were randomly sampled and then extended to another eight districts where 1390 households were randomly sampled. The pooled data from the nine districts comprised 987 dairy households with information on dairy cattle disposal and replacement practices during the previous year and the primary reasons for animal deaths and sales. Complementary information on the origins of cows was collected through targeted surveys of 50 sample households representative of the major dairy systems. Based on farmer recall of events during the year preceding the surveys, almost a third of cow and heifer exits were driven by the households’ needs for cash, and another third resulted from losses caused by diseases. Poor performance was less important, accounting for about 10% of cow exits and about 5% for heifers. More cows (>25% y-1) left the herd in zero- and semi-zero grazing systems than from free-grazing herds (19% y-1) and fewer heifers were available as replacements. As a result, the herds in the more intensive grazing systems would have to purchase replacements to maintain their herd size. By contrast, there were surplus heifer replacements in the free grazing systems. The majority of the breeding cows were born within the herd (68%) and few were purchased: 25% from smallholdings and 7% from large-scale farms. Of the purchased cows, 90% originated from smallholdings and 10% from large-scale farms while 96% of heifers were purchased from smallholdings and only 4% from large-scale farms. Purchases from smallholder farms were from within the locality. The implications of these results for smallholder dairy production in Kenya are discussed

De kracht van het verschil: diversiteit in duurzaamheid van dierhouderijsystemen

De discussie over de invloed van de mens op haar leefomgeving is van alle tijden. De urgentie van deze discussie neemt echter toe als gevolg van de groei van de wereldbevolking en veranderende voedings- en consumptiepatronen. Een vraag die steeds terugkeert is "Hoe kunnen wij deze wereldbevolking in haar behoeften voorzien?"

Breed preferences and breeding practices in smallholder dairy systems of the central highlands of Kenya

This paper describes, for smallholder dairying in the central highlands of Kenya, the sources of foundation stock, farmers’ breed preferences and breeding practices for the major dairy breeds. Data were obtained from a cross-sectional characterization study of smallholder dairy systems in the central highlands of Kenya. The study began with a pilot survey in Kiambu district during June-July 1996 where a random sample of 365 households was interviewed. For this study, respondents were asked to state the sources of their dairy foundation stock and the reasons for selecting their current breeds. Subsequently the survey was extended during March-April 1998 to another eight districts in the central Kenya when 1390 households were randomly sampled. Complementary information on herd breeding history was collected through targeted surveys of 50 sample households representative of the major dairy systems in the region. Respondents were asked about the breed of sire mated to the first dairy cow owned and the sire breeds mated to the heifer progeny. The respondents were asked to rate their preference for a breed on a scale of 1 (1=least preferred) to 4 (4=most preferred) for each of ten characteristics: milk yield, fat yield, body weight, growth rate, fertility, disease resistance, feeding behaviour, market demand, slaughter/butcher value, and longevity. Majority of the farmers (68%) indicated specifically selecting the breed of sire for mating but only 37% used AI service and 63% used bull service. High milk yield was the most important criteria for selecting a dairy breed. As result, Friesian and Ayrshire were the most preferred breeds. Ayrshire was favoured over Friesian for disease resistance and feeding behaviour but not for market value and body weight. Common breeding practice was pure breeding for Friesian, and upgrading of Guernsey to Friesian and to a lesser extent Ayrshire. Breeding practises reflected producers’ efforts to maximise the proportion of Friesian genes in their herds

A Conceptual Framework to Assess Development of Smallholder Crop-cattle Farming Systems in Bhutan:Sustainable Development or Gross National Happiness?

The objective of this paper is to compare the concepts of Sustainable Development (SD) and Gross National Happiness (GNH) to assess development at various level, especially at the smallholder crop-cattle farming systems level in Bhutan. The concept of SD was conceived about two decades ago, while GNH is a development paradigm that drew international attention in 1998.In this paper the similarities and differences of the SD and GNH concepts and their application to the case in Bhutan are reviewed. The generally cited four pillars of GNH are proposed as “building blocks” of GNH. They are sustainable and equitable socio-economic development, ecological preservation, preservation and promotion of culture and good governance. A conceptual framework to assess context dependent issues of GNH is developed. It is concluded that GNH assessment may be more appropriate at higher systems levels (e.g. district, national level) since it is at these level that the “building blocks”of GNH constitutes a useful framework through which regional and national development can be actualized. At present, for farm level assessment SD could be more appropriate since the indicators for the “building blocks”of GNH such as culture and good governance are still very few, qualitative and rather vague.Article信州大学農学部紀要. 46(1-2): 123-137 (2010)departmental bulletin pape