Occupational Exposure to Mycotoxins in Swine Production: Environmental and Biological Monitoring Approaches

Free PMC article: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/30717100/The authors are grateful to the swine farms employers and workers that collaborate in this research project. R.A. and C.M. are grateful to INSA and to CESAM (UID/AMB/50017/2013) through national funds (FCT), and the co-funding by the Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional (FEDER) (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-00763), within the PT2020 Partnership Agreement and Compete 2020.Swine production workers are exposed simultaneously to multiple contaminants. Occupational exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in Portuguese swine production farms has already been reported. However, besides AFB1, data regarding fungal contamination showed that exposure to other mycotoxins could be expected in this setting. The present study aimed to characterize the occupational exposure to multiple mycotoxins of swine production workers. To provide a broad view on the burden of contamination by mycotoxins and the workers’ exposure, biological (urine) samples from workers (n = 25) and 38 environmental samples (air samples, n = 23; litter samples, n = 5; feed samples, n = 10) were collected. The mycotoxins biomarkers detected in the urine samples of the workers group were the deoxynivalenol-glucuronic acid conjugate (60%), aflatoxin M1 (16%), enniatin B (4%), citrinin (8%), dihydrocitrinone (12%) and ochratoxin A (80%). Results of the control group followed the same pattern, but in general with a lower number of quantifiable results (<LOQ). Besides air samples, all the other environmental samples collected presented high and diverse contamination, and deoxynivalenol (DON), like in the biomonitoring results, was the most prominent mycotoxin. The results demonstrate that the occupational environment is adding and contributing to the workers’ total exposure to mycotoxins, particularly in the case of DON. This was confirmed by the biomonitoring data and the high contamination found in feed and litter samples. Furthermore, the followed multi-biomarker approach allowed to conclude that workers and general population are exposed to several mycotoxins simultaneously. Moreover, occupational exposure is probably described as being intermittent and with very high concentrations for short durations. This should be reflected in the risk assessment process.This research was funded by Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal: Project “Bacterial Bioburden assessment in the context of occupational exposure and animal health of swine productions (IPL/2016/BBIOR_ESTeSL)” and also by FCT—Fundação para Ciência e Tecnologia: Project “EXPOsE – Establishing protocols to assess occupational exposure to microbiota in clinical settings (02/SAICT/2016 – Project nº 23222)”.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Portuguese groceries: a potential indoor environment to be used as public health sentinel for fungal and mycotoxins contamination

This study aimed to characterize microbial contamination in Portuguese grocery stores. The research was carried out in 15 grocery stores in Cascais, Portugal. Electrostatic dust cloths (EDC) and surface swabs were used on 3 sampling sites: checkout, fruits/vegetables, and warehouse/dispenser. Fungal contamination was characterized by culture-based methods, through the inoculation onto two different culture media: malt extract agar (MEA) supplemented with chloramphenicol (0.05 %) and dichloran-glycerol agar (DG18). Screening of azole resistance was performed by inoculation of EDC extracts' in azole-supplemented Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) media, according to EUCAST guidelines. A total of 39 samples were screened for mycotoxin contamination. The highest fungal contamination was obtained from fruits/vegetables in swabs (76% MEA; 71% DG18). The most prevalent genera in swabs was Cladosporium sp. (54% MEA). Regarding EDC, besides Penicillium sp. (63%) the most prevalent were Aspergillus sections Circumdati (25%) and Aspergilli (35%). Penicillium sp. was highly prevalent in the checkout (61% SDA; 87% voriconazole), and warehouse/dispenser sectors (73% voriconazole; 52% posaconazole). Circumdati and Fumigati were the most prevalent Aspergillus sections in fruits/vegetables (73% and 64% in voriconazole, respectively). Four mycotoxins (fumonisin B1, B2, B3) were detected simultaneously in most of the 36 samples. Identifying the most critical workplaces in groceries concerning fungal and mycotoxin contamination is of utmost importance to human health (workers and consumers) when using a One Health approach.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Mycotoxins in coffee: what reality?

Coffee is a valuable product due to the still increasing demand for production and consume. Brazil, Vietnam and Columbia are the bigger producers and Finland, Norway and Netherlands are the countries with higher rates of consumption. Unfortunately, it is subjected to various contaminations that can have an important impact in consumer’s health and economy. The major compound of concern is ochratoxin A (OTA) but other mycotoxins can be present. However, roasting process has an important role in reducing mycotoxins presence, depending upon the combination of time and temperature. Since each European country applies different roasting conditions, significant differences in mycotoxins concentrations occur across the world even when the origin of the coffee beans is the same. Considering the above the aim of this study was to analyze mycotoxins (OTA, aflatoxins (AF) and citrinin (CIT)) in coffee ready to be consumed from different markets and different brands: Portugal (6), Austria (3), United States (2) and Timor (1). Twelve samples were collected from different types of brands sold as roasted beans. The extraction of OTA, CIT and AF was done on the immunoaffinity column Ochraprep (RBiopharm), CitriTest HPLC and AflaTest WB (Vicam), respectively. Mycotoxins were analyzed with HPLC-FLD (Merck-Hitachi). CIT and AF were not detected. OTA was detected in all the samples from Austria (2 results < 0.4 μg/Kg and 0.43 μg/Kg). In one of the Portuguese samples it was detected OTA (< 0.4 μg/Kg). Since the coffee beans have probably the same origin, it seems that indeed the roasting process adopted in each country and coffee industries influence the presence of mycotoxins. Further studies should be developed aiming to analyze other mycotoxins considering the possible climate changes influence. Additionally, a study should be developed to allow identifying how the roasting conditions adopted in each European country impact the presence of mycotoxins in coffee.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Bioburden and mycotoxigenic burden in one Portuguese dairy: exploratory study

Dairies workers are engaged in activities including feeding and milking of cows and cleaning up manure on a daily basis. In this occupational environment, there are several environmental factors that can boost bioburden and mycotoxins, becoming not only an occupational health problem but also a public health risk. This study intended to characterize occupational exposure to bioburden and mycotoxins in one Portuguese dairy.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Fungal and mycotoxin burden in Portuguese bakeries

Flour is a complex organic dust consisting of one or a mixture of several cereal grains (wheat, rye, millet, barley, oats or corn cereal) that have beeb processed or grund by milling. In addition, flour may contain a diverse number of contaminants, such as fungi and mycotoxins. The aim of this study was to assess the exposure of fungal burden (fungi and mycotoxins) on 13 Portuguese artisanal bakeries applying active and passive methods as sampling strategy.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Occupational exposure to mycotoxins in swineries

IPL/2016/BBIOR_ESTeSL_Bacterial Bioburden in the context of occupational exposure and animal health of swine productionsOccupational exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in swine farms was already reported and showed positive findings for AFB1 by ELISA in urine samples from workers that work in those farms. However, data regarding fungal contamination showed that exposure to other mycotoxins could be expected. A study was developed to analyse if exposure to further mycotoxins was occuring.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Portuguese groceries: a comprehensive occupational exposure assessment to fungal contamination

To our knowledge, there has been no research on the occupational exposure of grocery employees. This study aimed to characterize the microbial contamination in 15 grocery stores in Cascais, Portugal, by passive sampling. The molecular detection of Aspergillus sections, as well as mycotoxin analysis, screening of azole resistance, and cytotoxicity measurement was also conducted to better estimate the health risks of exposure and to identify possible relations between the risk factors. Electrostatic dust cloths (EDC) and surface swabs were used on 3 sampling sites: checkout, fruits/vegetable, and warehouse/dispenser. Fungal contamination was characterized by culture-based methods, through the inoculation onto two different culture media: malt extract agar (MEA) supplemented with chloramphenicol (0.05 %) and dichloran-glycerol agar (DG18). Screening of azole resistance was performed by inoculation of EDC extracts' in azole-supplemented Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) media, according to EUCAST guidelines. A total of 39 samples were screened for mycotoxins contamination. EDC’s cytotoxicity (IC50) was assessed in lung epithelial (A549) and liver carcinoma (HepG2) human cells, in the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The highest fungal contamination was obtained from fruits/vegetables in swabs (76 % MEA; 71% DG18). Cladosporium sp. (54% MEA) was the most prevalent genera in swabs. Regarding EDC, besides Penicillium sp. (63%) the most prevalent were Aspergillus sections Circumdati (25%) and Aspergilli (35%). Penicillium sp. was highly prevalent in the checkout (61% SDA; 87% voriconazole), and warehouse/dispenser sectors (73% voriconazole; 52% posaconazole). Circumdati and Fumigati were the most prevalent Aspergillus sections in fruits/vegetables (73% and 64% in voriconazole, respectively). Four mycotoxins (fumonisin B1, B2, B3) were detected simultaneously in most 36 samples. Two out of 39 EDC samples exhibited an IC50 of 10 mm2/ml: one (M7F/L) in A549 cells, and another (M8A) in HepG2 cells. Identifying the variables that influence the fungal and mycotoxins contamination of groceries environment is of utmost importance to prevent human exposure (workers and consumers) to these risk factors when using a One Health approach.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Exposure assessment to mycotoxins in a Portuguese fresh bread dough company by analysis of dust and urine samples

Occupational exposure to mycotoxins can occur in many and different work environments. Critical workplaces for mycotoxins appearance have already been studied and nowadays it is possible to investigate that exposure to mycotoxins is likely through inhalation due to their presence in dust. This study aimed to assess occupational co-exposure to mycotoxins in a fresh bread dough company, an workplace not studied until now.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Fungi and mycotoxins occupational exposure: unveiling the contamination in different settings from Portugal

This study intends to present an overview of the assessments of fungal contamination and mycotoxins performed in three different occupational environments (Firefighters headquarters - FFH; Waste collection trucks – WCT and; Cemeteries - CM). Active sampling (impaction and impingement methods) and several passive sampling methods (swabs, settled dust, settled dust filters, electrostatic dust cloths – EDC, cleaning materials,…) were employed. Azole resistance screening, the molecular detection of Aspergillus sections, as well as mycotoxin analysis were also conducted. In FFH microbial contamination didn´t comply with Portuguese IAQ legal requirements in most of the FFH, the widespread of Aspergillus section Fumigati in all the FFH was observed, as well as a trend of multidrug resistance with a focus on Fumigati isolates. Several mycotoxins (fumonisin B2, nivalenol, mycophenolic acid, and sterigmatocystin) were detected. Concerning WCT Aspergillus sp. (4.18 %) was one of the most prevalent species. Aspergillus section Fumigati was detected in 5 samples. Mycotoxins were detected in filters (N=1) and in settled dust samples (N=16). The mycotoxin detected in the filter was fumonisin B1 and the most detected in settled dust was mycophenolic acid. In what concerns CM, Aspergillus sp. presented the highest counts in DG18 (18.38%) and it wasn´t observed in azole-supplemented SDA media. Mycophenolic acid was detected in one settled dust sample. Overall, our study reveals that a comprehensive sampling approach and combined analytic methods are important assets in microbial exposure assessments. Furthermore, in all three occupational environments, mycotoxins were detected unveiling this occupational health threat.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio