Szkło w kulturze mieszkańców Poznania od późnego średniowiecza do pierwszej połowy XIX wieku

The paper discusses luxury and ordinary glass vessels found during archaeological excavations conducted on several plots on the right and left bank of the Warta river in Poznań. A majority of glassware was discovered in the Szyperska Street, 21, where a big refuse dump was situated. The present paper is based on glass dated from the late Middle Ages to the first half of the 19th century. Glassware from Poznań was classified into 3 groups: table glass, glass storage containers and pharmacy glass. There were fragments of beakers, goblets, tankards, one mug, bowls, jugs, decanters, big bottles, small bottles, one jar, ampoules, phials and one pestle. Table glass fragments showed the greatest diversity of forms. All vessels were made in two basic techniques: socalled “free hand” technique or by blowing into the mould. Some of discovered glass was probably made in Germany, Bohemia, Pomerania, Silesia, Little Poland or Central Poland. Many of them were produced in Polish glassworks

Long-term changes in the frequency of exceptionally cold and warm months in Europe (1831-2020)

The onset of periods with very high or low air temperatures has aroused general interest for a long time, which is understandable since it has many dangerous effects directly affecting humans. Such perilous climatic phenomena include exceptionally cold and exceptionally warm months, which this study investigates for all Europe and for its five physico-geographic regions over the 190-year period of 1831-2020. Therefore, the research in this paper includes two periods characteristic of the history of climate - the late Little Ice Age (LIA) and present-day warming. The studies are based on average monthly air temperature values from 40 weather stations in Europe. In this paper, exceptionally cold months (ECMs) or exceptionally warm months (EWMs) are considered to have occurred when the average air temperature at a station differed from the respective long-term average by at least two standard deviations. The highlights of the study include the identification of a drop in the number of ECMs by 20 over the entire 190-year period, and a highly statistically significant increase in EWMs by 44 between 1980 and 2020. These changes proceeded with different intensities from one physico-geographic region of Europe to another

Exceptionally hot and cold summers in Europe (1951-2010)

The paper explores exceptional thermal conditions, an area of research that has increased in significance in the context of the changes that are being observed in climate. Specifically, the study addressed the frequency, long-term change and spatial coverage of exceptionally hot summers, and exceptionally cool summers (EHS and ECS) in Europe. The statistical criterion of plus/minus two standard deviations from the long-term average was used to identify EHS and ECS at 60 weather stations over the period 1951-2010. The study has demonstrated that EHS are characterised by greater temperature anomalies than ECS and are approximately twice as frequent. They occurred virtually everywhere within the study area, whilst ECS are concentrated in its northern part. Five EHS (1972, 2002, 2003, 2007, and 2010) and three ECS (1956, 1962, and 1976) were large enough to be recorded by at least 10% of the station

Exceptionally hot summers in Central and Eastern Europe (1951-2010)

The paper focuses on exceptionally hot summers (EHS) as a manifestation of contemporary climate warming. The study identifies EHS occurrences in Central and Eastern Europe and describes the characteristic features of the region’s thermal conditions. Average air temperatures in June, July and August were considered, as well as the number of days with maximum temperatures exceeding 25, 30 and 35 ^{\circ}C, and with a minimum temperature greater than >20 ^{\circ}C, as recorded at 59 weather stations in 1951-2010. Extremely hot summers are defined as having an average temperature equal to or greater than the long-term average plus 2 SD. A calendar of EHSs was compiled and their spatial extent identified. The region experienced 12 EHSs, which occurred in a given year at 5 % or more stations (1972, 1981, 1988, 1992, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007 and 2010). The EHS frequency of occurrence was found to be clearly on an increase. Indeed, only one EHS occurred during the first 30 years, but these occurred five times during the last 10 years of the study period. Their geographical extent varied both in terms of location and size. EHSs were observed at 57 out of the total of 59 weather stations in the study (the exceptions were Pecora and Cluj). The average air temperature of EHSs tended to exceed the relevant long-term average by 2-4 ^{\circ}C. The summer of 2010 was among the hottest (temperature anomaly 5.5-6 ^{\circ}C) and spatially largest

Exceptionally cold and warm spring months in Kraków against the background of atmospheric circulation (1874-2022)

In the changing climate, exceptionally warm (EWMs) and dry spring months are increasingly observed. At the same time, exceptionally cold months (ECMs) are less frequent, although their impact on a warming climate becomes significant. Due to the role that such climatic anomalies play in the environment and their effects on human activity, it is very important to explain the causes of their occurrence. For this reason, in this study, the authors have attempted to determine the circulation conditions favourable to the occurrence of extremely cold (ECM) and warm (EWM) spring months in Kraków in the years 1874-2022. The study used the average temperature of individual spring months (March-May), as well as types of atmospheric circulation and air masses from the daily Calendar of Atmospheric Circulation Types for southern Poland. A distinct increase in spring air temperature (0.181 $^{\circ}C$/10 years) and its individual months (0.162-0.191 $^{\circ}C$/10 years) was confirmed. It was accompanied by a significant increase in the occurrence of EWM and a decrease in ECM. It was also found that the direction of air advection and the related temperature characteristics of air masses have the greatest impact on the occurrence of exceptionally cold or warm months. A slight positive effect of zonal circulation on the temperature increase at the beginning of the spring season and the advection of air from the south in April and east in May was found. In the case of the coldest months (ECMs), low temperatures most often developed in the presence of advection from the NW-N-NE directions

The variability of maximum daily precipitation and the underlying circulation conditions in Kraków, southern Poland

This article studies the intra-annual and long-term variability in the maximum daily precipitation totals and their association with atmospheric circulation in Kraków. It investigates daily precipitation maxima by year and by month. The research is based on daily precipitation totals in the years 1863-2021 and draws on the calendar of atmospheric circulation types by Niedźwiedź. It examines the frequency of precipitation maxima in individual months and their variation from one year to another. No statistically significant trend of change in precipitation over the study period has been found. All annual maximum daily precipitation totals in Kraków fall into the category of heavy precipitation (>10 mm), and almost 99% qualify as very heavy (>20 mm). In the summer months, these are about 3-4 times higher than in winter. The share of the daily precipitation maximum in the monthly total exceeds 30% in all months. The maximum daily precipitation occurring on 5 August 2021 was the highest in the period that extends from the start of instrumental measurements. The study period saw 12 cases of maximum precipitation that belong to "flood-inducing" categories (over 70 mm/day). Such cases of the very heaviest precipitation occurred in cyclonic situations: Cc, Bc, Nc, NEc, Ec and SEc. Most spring and summer maxima were seen on days with a cyclonic circulation. The instances of high daily precipitation in the Kraków area led to the flooding of residential and historic buildings, as well as of municipal infrastructure

The influence of atmospheric circulation on the type of precipitation (Kraków, southern Poland)

The paper discusses the impact of atmospheric circulation on the occurrence of various types of precipitation. A 146-year-long precipitation record from Kraków spanning the period 1863–2008 was used alongside a calendar prepared by Niedźwiedź (1981, 2009) describing circulation types covering the period 1873–2008 and air masses and atmospheric fronts covering the period 1951–2008 in southern Poland. The influence of atmospheric circulation on precipitation was measured using the frequency, conditional probability and average daily totals of precipitation. Circulation types, air masses and atmospheric fronts exerted influences on precipitation as a result of the seasonal variations of the thermal and moisture properties of air masses. The impact is best expressed by circulation types as these combine the aspect of cyclonicity/anticyclonicity with that of the direction of air advection, the two elements which determine the physical properties of the air. On average, liquid precipitation prevailed in all circulation types, except the Ea type in which snowfall dominated over liquid precipitation. Depending on the season, one of the three types of circulation, Wa, Wc and Bc, were shown to coincide with the greatest amount of liquid and thunderstorm precipitation. There was no single dominant circulation type for mixed precipitation or snowfall. In summer, the circulation types Nc, NEc, Cc and Bc were the most favourable to liquid and thunderstorm precipitation in terms of both probability and totals. In winter, snowfall was the most favoured by the Ec type. Frontal precipitation was twice as likely to occur as air mass precipitation, with the exception of snowfall which was predominantly an air mass type of precipitation in terms of probability, but its greatest totals were recorded on atmospheric fronts