organizing the transfer of technology and knowledge

The aim of this work is to conduct a theoretical and empirical investigation of how the market institution performs in the context of technology and knowledge transfer. The notion of political markets, first introduced by Adam Smith, is extended to the artifacts of technology and their associated factor markets. The paper develops the notion of political markets by drawing upon an empirical case that reconstructs the chain of events related to the transfer of flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). The case account for the various actors and institutions involved in the technology transfer, including the firms on both sides of the market, the government, the engineering-scientists, the economists, the union representatives and the machinists. It is argued that Natural markets is a special case of political markets in which technologies and hybrid entities and identities produce both the Natural market as well as its master – the pure technological relations. Neither the Natural market, nor Homo economicus can be brought into existence without pure technological relations. The existence of the latter is a necessary condition for the existence of the two former, as has already been recognized by neoclassical economics. The present work makes a constructive contribution to neoclassical economics in this respect, by describing and analyzing all the work of purification that enters into the task of bringing the necessary conditions into existence. Indeed, the process of purification that brings purified 3 technologies, natural markets and rational identities like homo economicus into existence, require huge investments, as do their maintenance. Technical knowledge turned out to be no exception. As the case suggests, technical knowledge was not just a given condition, but became a produced outcome. Yet, the process of knowledge production continued, transforming given technical knowledge in unexpected ways. Technical knowledge also became a negotiated outcome during the transfer of FMS. Hence, when market transaction takes place, knowledge it self can be transformed, and with it, the conditions for conducting the market transaction. So, the notion of political markets proposed here, suggests that knowledge can be both premises as well as an outcome of market transaction – as knowledge, its status and distribution - can be negotiated in the process. Instead of criticizing Homo economicus and (neo) classical economics, the notion of political markets thus proposed imply a constructive contribution to economics, notably to the core of neo classical economics: Through out this paper, it is argued with reference to both theory and own empirical fieldwork, that neoclassical economics participate in the successful purification of technological relations. Yet, in order to provide for an explanation of such a successful outcome, it is not enough to account for economists among themselves. As has already been suggested by Callon (1998) and the associated work on the anthropology of markets, also such material associations as computer based calculations and simulations of the macro-economy must be brought into the explanation. In more specific terms, the puzzling ‘residual’ in the neoclassical production function can be explained by now also taking into account the many subtle ways economics itself interfere in making up the residual. Neoclassical economics only have to refine their production function by adding to it the significance of material associations such as computer based calculations and simulations of the macro-economy. Done properly, a revised macro-economic model would emerge, capable of handling ‘market failures’ in new ways. Instead of attributing all failures to the market and no failures to technology, a more symmetric distribution of failures between the two entities would be allowed for. Further more, each time a ‘residual’ emerges from applying the revised model, it is no longer simply due to ‘technical change’ but also due to ‘market failures’. Hence, such a revised macro-economic model not only allow neoclassical economics to maintain the distinction between technology and the market but also allows for the flexibility of including those entities previously excluded, that is, the material associations and inscriptions that participates in making up the distinctions between the two

The Making of Statistical Facts and Artifacts in Economics

The study aims is to describe how the inclusion and exclusion of materials and calculative devices construct the boundaries and distinctions between statistical facts and artifacts in economics. My methodological approach is inspired by John Graunt’s (1667) Political arithmetic and more recent work within constructivism and the field of Science and Technology Studies (STS). The result of this approach is here termed reversible statistics, reconstructing the findings of a statistical study within economics in three different ways. It is argued that all three accounts are quite normal, albeit in different ways. The presence and absence of diverse materials, both natural and political, is what distinguishes them from each other. Arguments are presented for a more symmetric relation between the scientific statistical text and the reader. I will argue that a more symmetric relation can be achieved by accounting for the significance of the materials and the equipment that enters into the production of statistics. Key words: Reversible statistics, diverse materials, constructivism, economics, science, and technology

Or how materials produce degrees of humanity in strategic research and practice

The aim of this article is to inquire into the possible significance of materials in the production of emerging strategic outcomes. The article first sets out to discuss the different ways contemporary strategy research define the identity of strategic actors. It is argued that the various schools of strategy research, although different in important respects, operate with a common human centered assumption: Humanity is treated as given – the strategic actor or subject is assumed to be an individual human or a collective of humans. By adding the possible significance of materials and other non-human entities to the explanatory repertoire of strategy research, another line of inquiry is pursued. The performative perspective thus proposed, is inspired by the classical work of Von Clausewitz and the recent anthropology of science, technology and organizational identities. In the proposed perspective, the human centered assumption is no longer just a premise for doing strategy research, but instead considered an interesting emerging outcome to be explained. Further more, the performative perspective allows strategy research to extend the notion of emergent strategies so as to include the possible significance of materials and other non-human entities in the explanation of 2 emerging strategic identities and outcomes. Hence, also a new task has been added to strategy research: To explain how emerging strategic identities – consisting of both humans and non-humans, are produced as part of strategic outcomes. Three cases are presented, each of them with a particular bearing on how materials participate in the making of emerging strategic identities and outcomes: The first case account for strategies transforming plans into anti-plans. This is a case of how a strategic plan is betrayed (or rejected) by an emerging collective consisting of both humans and diverse materials like a paper inscription and heavy machinery. The second case account for how the emerging twin identities of the strategic management subject and the human object are co-produced in interaction with a machine delegate. Finally, the third case account for how the strategic technology and the strategic collective emerge and co-produce each other as a macro-actor, only to become transformed in unexpected ways - as common technology and reflective human subjects. In the concluding section, it is argued that the humanity of the reflective human subject should be regarded as an emerging identity, co-produced in interaction with diverse materials like machinery. It is further argued that strategy research has slowly written out Von Clausewitz original insight in this respect. The complexity Von Clausewitz introduced with the notion of ‘degrees of humanity’ has been replaced with a given humanity, yet the costs of doing so remain outside the frames of contemporary strategy research. Failing to attend to the possible significance of materials in producing degrees of humanity has made strategy research as much producers of strategic outcomes, as providers of explanations and observations. The expression ‘technological strategy as macro-actor’ summarizes these findings and the associated implications for research and practice

Visualizing practices in project-based design : tracing connections through cascades of visual representations

Project-based design involves a variety of visual representations, which are evolved to make decisions and accomplish project objectives. Yet, such mediated and distributed ways of working are difficult to capture through ethnographies that examine situated design. A novel approach is developed that follows cascades of visual representations; and this is illustrated through two empirical studies. In the first case, Heathrow Terminal 5, analysis starts from paper- and model-work used to develop design, tracing connections forward to an assembly manual that forms a ‘consolidated cascade ’ of visual representations . In th e second, the Turning Torso, Malmö, analysis starts from a planning document, trac ing connections backward to the paper - and model - work done to produce this consolidated cascade . Th is work makes a twofold contribution : First, it offer s a methodological app roach that supplements ethnographies of situated design. This allows the researcher to be nimble, tracing connections across complex engineering projects; reconstructing practices through their visual representations; and observing their effects. Second, it articulate s how , in these empirical cases, interaction with a cascade of visual representations enabled participants in project - based design to develop and share understanding. T he complexity of projects , and their distributed and mediated nature makes this approach timely and important in address ing new research questions and practical challenges

Contested organizational change and accounting in trials of incompatibility

This paper is about the role of accounting in making decisions about contested organizational change. We study how two strategic options emerged and were valued differently in a protracted case regarding sourcing by the Danish Defence Force. Drawing on Actor-Network Theory we show how the two strategic options emerged and were pitted against each other in what Callon describes as ‘trials of strength’. The contribution of the paper is in three actions: First, it develops the concept of ‘trial of strength’ for accounting and organizational research by showing that extant literature can be enhanced with the conceptualization of a typology of trials that distinguishes between prototype trials and trials of incompatibility. Second, it shows that accounting inscriptions may play changing roles which we label ‘versatile’ when forged in the contested circumstances and resultant pressure of a trial of incompatibility. Third, it highlights how accounting inscriptions take part in (re)formulating, evaluating and advancing mutually exclusive reform options in a series of trials of strength involving both a prototype trial and trials of incompatibility. In addition to the frequency, number and intensity of the inscriptions there appears to be an increased prospect of unfaithful behavior by some inscriptions. This work also has implications for governmentality theorization and processual views of outsourcing decision making - as well as its paradoxical outcomes.publishedVersio

(Re)constructing the wicked problem through the visual and the verbal: the case of a dialogue based architectural competition

Wicked problems are open ended and complex societal problems. There is a lack of empirical research into the dynamics and mechanisms that (re)construct problems to become wicked. This paper builds on an ethnographic study of a dialogue-based architect competition to do just that. The competition studied had the purpose of selecting a design, a project and a design team for a large multifunctional building in Copenhagen. As a part of the competition, four different architect-teams had to come up with solutions on how to transform an old brewery site into a multifunctional building. During the competition, the invited architectural teams presented their designs and team organization in three parallel workshops for a panel of client advisors, user representatives as well as a professional jury. Our data consists of semi structured interviews with key informants before, during and after the competition and participant observations from all the workshops. We focus on the dynamic interplay between design visualizations and verbal dialogues and the ways in which contradictions and tensions emerge and play out. When the architect teams present their solutions at the workshops, the visualization processes creates new knowledge and insights, but at the same time present new problems related to the ongoing verbal feedback. In the design process where the problem is being (re) constructed appears as Heracles fight with Hydra: Every time Heracles cut of a head, two new heads grow out. The paper contributes to the understanding of the relationship between the visual and the verbal (dialogue) in complex design process in the early phases of large construction projects, and how the dynamic interplay between the design visualizations and verbal dialogues develops before the competition produces, or negotiates “a winning design”

Or how the natural environment may qualify as a stakeholder in the firm’s business environment

In its general form, stakeholder theory posits an extension of the ecology. It claims that there are other stakes and interests than those posited by shareholder value theory (Freeman et al. 2004; Jensen and Sandström 2011), and some stakeholder theory proponents argue that the natural environment is also to be considered as a stakeholder (Driscoll and Starik 2004; Norton 2007). It is a positive claim – there are more stakes and interests – and a moral one – we should look towards more interests in order to complete the analysis. With this framing, stakeholder theory seeks to identify stakes and interests which may be difficult but in principle achievable; it also seeks to make analysis of organized activity such as (global) business into a concern with the relative power of stakes and interests. These concerns are highly relevant but they face the barrier that if stakes and interests are positively there, the analysis becomes static and will pay less attention to both the formation and to power-effects of stakes and interest

Risk management and uncertainty in infrastructure projects – what role(s) for knowledge and construction management?

The assumption that large complex projects should be managed in order to reduce uncertainty and increase predictability is not new. What is relatively new, however, is that uncertainty reduction can and should be obtained through formal risk management approaches. We question both assumptions by addressing a more fundamental question about the role of knowledge in current risk management practices. Inquiries into the predominant approaches to risk management in large infrastructure and construction projects reveal their assumptions about knowledge and we discuss the ramifications these have for project and construction management. Our argument and claim is that predominant risk management approaches tends to reinforce conventional ideas of project control whilst undermining other notions of value and relevance of built assets and project management process. These approaches fail to consider the role and potential value of knowledge production during the project process, instead seeing knowledge as an input into upfront planning and specification. We examine ways in which actual project practices approach the question of risk management for the case of large public hospital building and infrastructure projects in Denmark. These projects are characterized by long durations involving substantial materiality, high uncertainty, ambiguity, and complexity. Yet, they are also subjected to risk management that operates according to a standardized ‘best practice’ control approach – as if these hospital and infrastructure projects are quite simple, predictive and similar in nature. The cases reveal the emerging uncertainties that challenge the project plan and the risk management approach as new knowledge about the conditions are produced during the project processes. The paper concludes by proposing a more dynamic understanding of the role of knowledge, considering the practical implications of uncertain knowledge conditions as a prevailing condition for construction management rather than something to be known in advanced and reduced by risk management

Design as redesign in the case of architectural competitions: the role of design visualisations and juries

Organisational research positions design as complex and open-ended. We contribute to research on design and the organisation of competition by conceptualising design as redesign and as a collective ‘thing’ consisting of an interconnected and dynamically evolving set of new design issues and matters of concern that blur actors’ professional roles. Our approach builds on actor-network theory using an ethnographic study to follow architects’ design work in a commercial case of a dialogue-based architectural competition. Building scales and design concepts were translated and inscribed into different forms of design visualisations and circulated amongst the client, the architect office, and the workshop during the encounter between the team of architects and the jury. As circulating references, design visualisations retain and transform the design and give rise to new contradictory design issues during the actors’ verbal dialogue