VIOLENCE IN FAMILIES AND INTIMATE RELATIONS OF WAR VETERANS AND ACTIVE MILITARY PERSONNEL: RISKS FACTORS AND PREVENTION POSSIBILITIES

U radu se analiziraju dostupni pokazatelji i procjenjuje prisutnost nasilničkog ponašanja u obiteljima hrvatskih vojnih veterana i aktivnih vojnika. Temeljem dostupnih podataka iz literature i specifičnosti vojne profesije analiziraju se ključni rizični čimbenici za pojavu obiteljskog nasilja u vojnoj populaciji. Posebna pozornost posvećuje se stresorima vojne profesije koji negativno djeluju na psihičko i tjelesno zdravlje vojnog osoblja kao i na ukupno obiteljsko funkcioniranje i zdravstvene ishode članova. Zbog iskustva Domovinskog rata, kritički se preispituju obilježja hrvatske vojne populacije, njihove specifičnosti i moguća povezanost s pojavom nasilničkog ponašanja. Posebni naglasak stavlja se na potrebu i mogućnosti otklanjanja ili ublažavanja ovog nepoželjnog ponašanja na različitim društvenim razinama.This article analyses available indicators and evaluates the presence of violent behavior in families of Croatian war veterans and active military personnel. Based on available data and the specificity of the military profession, key risk factors for the appearance of family violence in the military population are analyzed. Special attention is given to stressors of the military profession that negatively affect the psychological and physical health of military personnel as well as the overall functioning of families and health effects of family’s members. Due to experiences from the Homeland War, characteristics of the Croatian military population, their specificities and possible connection to the appearance of violent behavior are critically examined. Special emphasis is placed on the need and possibility for preventive action in removing or mitigation of this unwanted behavior at various social levels

Odrednice stavova prema ženama u vojsci

In recent decades, an increasing number of women are joining the military, which has been historically a male-dominated institution. This study examined attitudes toward women in the military and the factors associated with them. The study was conducted on a random sample of 895 active service members from the Croatian Armed Forces (445 men and 450 women). The study findings indicate a moderately high approval of women in the military, but with the existence of significant gender differences. Men expressed more negative attitudes toward women in the military when compared to women. In addition, the results of the regression analyses indicated that, among men, hostile sexism, satisfaction with professional contacts with women in the military, and professional status were significantly associated with their attitudes toward women in the military. The results also showed that, among women, hostile sexism, frequency of professional contacts with other women, and educational level were significantly associated with their attitudes toward women in the military. The study findings reveal insights into gender relations in the previously unexplored socio-cultural military context, and have implications for research and practice in the Croatian military. However, this study could also contribute to a better understanding of the complexity of gender issues within NATO, and could encourage the development of new theoretical models and cross-cultural research.Posljednjih se desetljeća sve veći broj žena priključuje vojsci, instituciji kojom su povijesno gledano dominirali muškarci. Ovim su istraživanjem ispitane odrednice stavova prema ženama u vojsci, a istraživanje je provedeno na slučajnom uzorku 895 pripadnika djelatnog sastava Hrvatske vojske (445 muškaraca i 450 žena). Nalazi istraživanja ukazuju na umjereno visok stupanj odobravanja žena u vojsci, ali uz postojanje značajnih rodnih razlika. Muškarci su u usporedbi sa ženama izražavali negativnije stavove prema ženama u vojsci. Rezultati regresijskih analiza pokazali su da su među muškarcima hostilni seksizam, zadovoljstvo profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama u vojsci te profesionalni status značajno povezani s njihovim stavovima prema ženama u vojsci. Rezultati su također pokazali da su kod žena hostilni seksizam, učestalost profesionalnih kontakata s drugim ženama te razina obrazovanja značajno povezani s njihovim stavovima prema ženama u vojsci. Nalazi istraživanja donose uvide u rodne odnose unutar ranije neistraživanog sociokulturnog vojnog konteksta te imaju implikacije za istraživanje i praksu u Hrvatskoj vojsci. Ujedno, mogli bi doprinijeti i boljem razumijevanju složenosti rodnih pitanja unutar NATO-a te potaknuti razvoj novih teorijskih modela i budućih međukulturnih istraživanja

Harmonization of Paid Work and Family Life for Female Members of the Croatian Armed Forces

Cilj ovog rada bio je utvrditi doživljaj stupnja usklađenosti plaćenog rada i obiteljskog života majki zaposlenih u obrambenom sustavu RH te ustanoviti radne, obiteljske, socijalne i demografske prediktore obje vrste interferencije, doživljaja interferencije plaćenog rada s obitelji i doživljaja interferencije obitelji s plaćenim radom. Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku koji su činile 624 zaposlene majke, djelatne vojnikinje, dočasnice i časnice zaposlene u Ministarstvu obrane i Oružanim snagama RH. Rezultati pokazuju da zaposlene majke statistički značajno većim procjenjuju stupanj ometajućeg utjecaja plaćenog rada na obiteljski život nego što obiteljske obveze ometaju njihovo radno ponašanje. Odabrani prediktori objašnjavaju približno 38% varijance u procjenama ometajućeg utjecaja plaćenog rada na obiteljski život te 29% varijance u procjenama ometajućeg utjecaja obitelji na radno ponašanje. U predikciji interferencije plaćenog rada s obiteljskim životom najboljim su se prediktorima pokazale radne varijable (vremenski pritisak i konfliktnost zahtjeva na radnom mjestu, tjedno radno vrijeme, dani odvojenosti, sigurnost posla i dostupnost mjera organizacijske potpore), a značajan je i samostalni doprinos nekih obiteljskih varijabli (dob najmlađeg djeteta, vrijeme posvećeno obiteljskim obvezama i potreba skrbi za stare/nemoćne). U predikciji interferencije obiteljskog života s plaćenim radom značajnu snagu predikcije osim obiteljskih varijabli (dob najmlađeg djeteta, raspodjela obiteljskih obveza, potreba skrbi za stare/nemoćne, dostupnost pomoći šire obitelji i prijatelja), pokazale su i radne varijable (nedostatak ključnih informacija na radnom mjestu, sigurnost posla, vrijeme putovanja na posao, važnost posla i dani odvojenosti od obitelji ) te socijalna varijabla dostupnosti javnih usluga potpore obiteljima u mjestu prebivališta. Najznačajniji samostalni prediktor interferencije obitelji s plaćenim radom je radna varijabla nedostatak ključnih informacija na radnom mjestu.The aim of this study is to identify the perceived degree of harmonization of paid work and family life in employed mothers within the Croatian Armed Forces and to determine work, family, social and demographic predictors of both types of intereference, the perceived work to family intereference and the perceived family to work interference. Research was conducted on a sample of 624 employed mothers, active soldiers, NCOs and officers, employed in the Croatian Ministry of Defence and Armed Forces. Results show that employed mothers perceived a significantly stronger degree of work to life interference than the degree to which family obligations interfered with their work behaviour. Chosen predictors explain about 38% of variance of evaluations in the interfering influence of work to family and 29% variance of evaluations in the interfering influence of family to work behaviour. In prediction of the work to family interference the best predictors proved to be work variables (time pressure and conflicting demands in the workplace, weekly working hours, days of seperation, job security and availability of organzational support measures), while the independant contribution of certain family variables (the age of the youngest sibling, time dedicated to family obligations and the need to care for the elderly/weak) also proved significant. In the prediction of family to work interference, beside family variables (the age of the youngest sibling, the apportionment of family obligations, the need to care for the elderly/weak, availability of assistance for the wider family and friends), work variables (lack of key information in the workplace, job security, time to commute to work, importance of work and days seperated from the family) also proved to be significant, as well as the social variable of availability of public services for supporting the family where they live. The most significant independant predictor of family to work interference is the work variable of a lack of information in the workplace

VIOLENCE IN FAMILIES AND INTIMATE RELATIONS OF WAR VETERANS AND ACTIVE MILITARY PERSONNEL: RISKS FACTORS AND PREVENTION POSSIBILITIES

U radu se analiziraju dostupni pokazatelji i procjenjuje prisutnost nasilničkog ponašanja u obiteljima hrvatskih vojnih veterana i aktivnih vojnika. Temeljem dostupnih podataka iz literature i specifičnosti vojne profesije analiziraju se ključni rizični čimbenici za pojavu obiteljskog nasilja u vojnoj populaciji. Posebna pozornost posvećuje se stresorima vojne profesije koji negativno djeluju na psihičko i tjelesno zdravlje vojnog osoblja kao i na ukupno obiteljsko funkcioniranje i zdravstvene ishode članova. Zbog iskustva Domovinskog rata, kritički se preispituju obilježja hrvatske vojne populacije, njihove specifičnosti i moguća povezanost s pojavom nasilničkog ponašanja. Posebni naglasak stavlja se na potrebu i mogućnosti otklanjanja ili ublažavanja ovog nepoželjnog ponašanja na različitim društvenim razinama.This article analyses available indicators and evaluates the presence of violent behavior in families of Croatian war veterans and active military personnel. Based on available data and the specificity of the military profession, key risk factors for the appearance of family violence in the military population are analyzed. Special attention is given to stressors of the military profession that negatively affect the psychological and physical health of military personnel as well as the overall functioning of families and health effects of family’s members. Due to experiences from the Homeland War, characteristics of the Croatian military population, their specificities and possible connection to the appearance of violent behavior are critically examined. Special emphasis is placed on the need and possibility for preventive action in removing or mitigation of this unwanted behavior at various social levels

DETERMINANTS OF THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN THE ARMED FORCES OF THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA

U radu se prikazuju ključna obilježja politike rodne ravnopravnosti u hrvatskom obrambenom sustavu, kvantitativna analiza dijela sekundarnih podataka i rezultata anketnog istraživanja. Konceptualni model istraživanja utemeljen je na teoriji socijalnog identiteta (Tajfel i Turner, 1979). Cilj istraživanja bio je ispitati u kojoj mjeri sociodemografska obilježja, religioznost, profesionalni kontakti sa ženama, ambivalentni seksizam, stavovi prema ženama u vojsci i iskustvo rodne neravnopravnosti doprinose objašnjenju percepcije rodne ravnopravnosti u vojsci. Ispitan je i posredujući utjecaj stavova prema ženama u vojsci na odnos prediktorskih varijabli i percepcije rodne ravnopravnosti. Uzorak su činili pripadnici djelatnog sastava Oružanih snaga RH (445 muškaraca i 450 žena), a korišten je stratificirani nerazmjerni uzorak te postupak sustavnog slučajnog uzorkovanja. U skladu s teorijskim postavkama rezultati su pokazali da pripadnost određenoj socijalnoj grupi te usporedba vlastite i vanjske grupe dovodi do favoriziranja pripadnika vlastite grupe i većeg diskriminiranja pripadnika vanjske grupe. Nisu utvrđene rodne razlike u percepciji rodne ravnopravnosti, ali su među muškarcima najsnažniju percepciju rodne neravnopravnosti izrazili vojnici te mlađi i niže obrazovani muškarci, a među ženama časnice i žene višeg obrazovanja. Odabrani prediktorski skup bolje je objasnio varijancu kriterija muškaraca (42%) nego žena (26%). Viši stupanj rodne ravnopravnosti percipirali su muškarci koji su zadovoljniji profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama, imaju pozitivnije stavove prema ženama u vojsci i rjeđe su doživjeli rodno uvjetovanu hostilnu diskriminaciju, te žene koje su rjeđe iskusile rodnu diskriminaciju, koje su zadovoljnije profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama i slabije podržavaju benevolentni seksizam o idealizaciji žena. Analize su djelomično potvrdile konceptualni model istraživanja, a posredujući utjecaj stavova prema ženama u vojsci utvrđen je samo za muškarce. Veće zadovoljstvo profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama u vojsci i slabije podržavanje hostilnog seksizma ispitanih muškaraca, putem razvoja pozitivnijih stavova prema ženama u vojsci, doveli su do percepcije više razine rodne ravnopravnosti. Rad naglašava važnost unaprjeđenja postojeće politike i prakse za što je ključno uvažavanje razlika u specifičnim potrebama i iskustvima žena i muškaraca u vojsci te potvrđuje važnu ulogu zapovjednika u promicanju veće tolerancije različitosti.The military is known as a work environment in which the issues of inequity and underrepresentation of women in terms of functions and duties continue to exist. Therefore, the presence of strong gender-specific stereotypes, roles, and attitudes can be noticed in such an environment, as well as the frequent occurrences of gender-based discrimination. This study presents the key features of the gender equality policy in the Croatian Armed Forces (CAF), some secondary data and the results of the quantitative research. As the gender equality agenda has been implemented for the last ten years in the CAF a conceptual model of determinants of the perception of gender equality based on the Social Identity Theory (SIT) was used (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) in this study. According to the SIT theory, social groups play an important role in each individual’s identity. Specifically, belonging to a particular social group affects individual social perception and evaluation of others. Individuals are positively biased towards their own social group and its members because they develop a positive social identity and greater self-esteem within their own group. At the same time, while striving to achieve a positive social identity with their own group, a discrimination against the external social groups and its members occurs (Al Ramiah et al., 2010; Aronson et al., 2005; Vučković Juroš et al., 2014). The aim of the study was to examine the extent to which socio-demographic characteristics, religiosity, professional contacts with women, ambivalent sexism, attitudes towards women in the military and the experience of gender discrimination contribute to explaining the perception of gender equality in the military. Also, the aim was to examine the mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military on the relationship between the predictor variables and the perception of gender equality. Methodology The sample consisted of 445 servicemen and 450 servicewomen including active soldiers, non-commissioned officers, and officers from all organizational units of the CAF. They were selected by using a stratified random sampling technique with a disproportionate allocation. The questionnaire included measures of perception of gender equality, attitudes towards women in the military, ambivalent sexism, professional contact with women in the workplace, personal experiences of gender-based discrimination, indicators of religiosity, and socio-demographic and professional question. Analyses were done using hierarchical regression analyses and path analyses. Results In accordance with the SIT theory, the results indicated that belonging to a certain social group and comparing one's own group with the external group were associated with favoring members of one's own group, and with a greater tendency to discriminate against members of an external group. Furthermore, the study determined the existence of gender differences in the expression of attitudes towards women in the military, as well as ambivalent sexism towards women. Statistically significant differences in the perception of gender equality between men and women were not found. However, additional analyses showed that among men the groups that stand out with the strongest perception of gender inequality were soldiers, younger men and lower educated men. Among women the strongest perception of gender inequality was expressed by female officers and higher educated women. Women were significantly more likely to experience gender-based discrimination in the workplace, both in the career discrimination and the hostile discrimination. The selected set of predictors better explained the variance in the perception of gender equality among men (42%) than among women (26%). Additionally, higher levels of gender equality were perceived by men who were more satisfied with their professional contacts with women, those who expressed more positive attitudes towards women in the military and those who experienced gender-based hostile discrimination in the workplace less often. Similarly, higher levels of gender equality were perceived by women who were more satisfied with their professional contacts with women, those who experienced both types of gender discrimination less often, and women who expressed the benevolent sexism (complementary gender differentiation) less. The results partially confirmed the conceptual model of the study. The mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military was found only among men. More specifically, the results showed that men’s attitudes toward women in the military partially mediate their relationships between hostile sexism and satisfaction with professional contacts with women with their perception of gender equality. In accordance with expectations, greater satisfaction with professional contacts with women and weaker expression of hostile sexism, through the development of more positive attitudes towards women in the military, were associated with the higher level of men’s perception of gender equality. Also, the mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military on the relationship between the experience of gender discrimination and the perception of gender equality among men was not determined. Discussion The study results demonstrated that attitudes towards women in the military have a different impact on the perception of gender relations among men and women, which is partly determined by intergroup relations as well as the specific military context. The results also indicated that the conceptual model of this study was more adapted to the pattern of intergroup relations of the predominant gender group (men). It is, therefore, necessary to develop separate models for women and men. The results of mediation analysis showed that the development of successful professional contacts between men and women in the military can be a particularly effective mechanism for developing positive attitudes towards women in various roles in the military, as well as higher level of men’s perception of gender equality. The above mentioned study findings suggested an important recommendation, which is that commanders can play an important role in creating optimal conditions for the development of intergroup contacts, preventing all forms of discrimination and promoting greater tolerance of diversity in the workplace. It was also suggested that this may be the most appropriate way to change traditional gender attitudes and to develop organizational culture with equal career prospects for women and men in the military. Finally, this would also lead to the optimal use of all human resources in the armed forces. Conclusion In general, this study showed that the existing gender equality policies of the Croatian Armed Forces are not sufficiently effective. This conclusion is confirmed by indicators of educational, horizontal and vertical gender segregation, and based on the results of a survey of attitudes, experiences and perceptions. The study emphasizes the crucial importance of improving gender equality policies and practices taking into account different perceptions, needs and experiences of women and men in the military. Also, the study findings suggest a need for the development of new policies, primarily those that aim to improve work-family balance among military personnel. Furthermore, the study findings emphasize the importance of conducting military trainings based on equal and gender-neutral performance standards to ensure the same levels of professional competencies for women and men in the military. Finally, the findings suggest a development of professional training aimed at raising awareness of the importance of gender issues and enabling service members, particularly commanders, for combating gender discrimination

Harmonization of Paid Work and Family Life for Female Members of the Croatian Armed Forces

Cilj ovog rada bio je utvrditi doživljaj stupnja usklađenosti plaćenog rada i obiteljskog života majki zaposlenih u obrambenom sustavu RH te ustanoviti radne, obiteljske, socijalne i demografske prediktore obje vrste interferencije, doživljaja interferencije plaćenog rada s obitelji i doživljaja interferencije obitelji s plaćenim radom. Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku koji su činile 624 zaposlene majke, djelatne vojnikinje, dočasnice i časnice zaposlene u Ministarstvu obrane i Oružanim snagama RH. Rezultati pokazuju da zaposlene majke statistički značajno većim procjenjuju stupanj ometajućeg utjecaja plaćenog rada na obiteljski život nego što obiteljske obveze ometaju njihovo radno ponašanje. Odabrani prediktori objašnjavaju približno 38% varijance u procjenama ometajućeg utjecaja plaćenog rada na obiteljski život te 29% varijance u procjenama ometajućeg utjecaja obitelji na radno ponašanje. U predikciji interferencije plaćenog rada s obiteljskim životom najboljim su se prediktorima pokazale radne varijable (vremenski pritisak i konfliktnost zahtjeva na radnom mjestu, tjedno radno vrijeme, dani odvojenosti, sigurnost posla i dostupnost mjera organizacijske potpore), a značajan je i samostalni doprinos nekih obiteljskih varijabli (dob najmlađeg djeteta, vrijeme posvećeno obiteljskim obvezama i potreba skrbi za stare/nemoćne). U predikciji interferencije obiteljskog života s plaćenim radom značajnu snagu predikcije osim obiteljskih varijabli (dob najmlađeg djeteta, raspodjela obiteljskih obveza, potreba skrbi za stare/nemoćne, dostupnost pomoći šire obitelji i prijatelja), pokazale su i radne varijable (nedostatak ključnih informacija na radnom mjestu, sigurnost posla, vrijeme putovanja na posao, važnost posla i dani odvojenosti od obitelji ) te socijalna varijabla dostupnosti javnih usluga potpore obiteljima u mjestu prebivališta. Najznačajniji samostalni prediktor interferencije obitelji s plaćenim radom je radna varijabla nedostatak ključnih informacija na radnom mjestu.The aim of this study is to identify the perceived degree of harmonization of paid work and family life in employed mothers within the Croatian Armed Forces and to determine work, family, social and demographic predictors of both types of intereference, the perceived work to family intereference and the perceived family to work interference. Research was conducted on a sample of 624 employed mothers, active soldiers, NCOs and officers, employed in the Croatian Ministry of Defence and Armed Forces. Results show that employed mothers perceived a significantly stronger degree of work to life interference than the degree to which family obligations interfered with their work behaviour. Chosen predictors explain about 38% of variance of evaluations in the interfering influence of work to family and 29% variance of evaluations in the interfering influence of family to work behaviour. In prediction of the work to family interference the best predictors proved to be work variables (time pressure and conflicting demands in the workplace, weekly working hours, days of seperation, job security and availability of organzational support measures), while the independant contribution of certain family variables (the age of the youngest sibling, time dedicated to family obligations and the need to care for the elderly/weak) also proved significant. In the prediction of family to work interference, beside family variables (the age of the youngest sibling, the apportionment of family obligations, the need to care for the elderly/weak, availability of assistance for the wider family and friends), work variables (lack of key information in the workplace, job security, time to commute to work, importance of work and days seperated from the family) also proved to be significant, as well as the social variable of availability of public services for supporting the family where they live. The most significant independant predictor of family to work interference is the work variable of a lack of information in the workplace

Harmonization of Paid Work and Family Life for Female Members of the Croatian Armed Forces

Cilj ovog rada bio je utvrditi doživljaj stupnja usklađenosti plaćenog rada i obiteljskog života majki zaposlenih u obrambenom sustavu RH te ustanoviti radne, obiteljske, socijalne i demografske prediktore obje vrste interferencije, doživljaja interferencije plaćenog rada s obitelji i doživljaja interferencije obitelji s plaćenim radom. Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku koji su činile 624 zaposlene majke, djelatne vojnikinje, dočasnice i časnice zaposlene u Ministarstvu obrane i Oružanim snagama RH. Rezultati pokazuju da zaposlene majke statistički značajno većim procjenjuju stupanj ometajućeg utjecaja plaćenog rada na obiteljski život nego što obiteljske obveze ometaju njihovo radno ponašanje. Odabrani prediktori objašnjavaju približno 38% varijance u procjenama ometajućeg utjecaja plaćenog rada na obiteljski život te 29% varijance u procjenama ometajućeg utjecaja obitelji na radno ponašanje. U predikciji interferencije plaćenog rada s obiteljskim životom najboljim su se prediktorima pokazale radne varijable (vremenski pritisak i konfliktnost zahtjeva na radnom mjestu, tjedno radno vrijeme, dani odvojenosti, sigurnost posla i dostupnost mjera organizacijske potpore), a značajan je i samostalni doprinos nekih obiteljskih varijabli (dob najmlađeg djeteta, vrijeme posvećeno obiteljskim obvezama i potreba skrbi za stare/nemoćne). U predikciji interferencije obiteljskog života s plaćenim radom značajnu snagu predikcije osim obiteljskih varijabli (dob najmlađeg djeteta, raspodjela obiteljskih obveza, potreba skrbi za stare/nemoćne, dostupnost pomoći šire obitelji i prijatelja), pokazale su i radne varijable (nedostatak ključnih informacija na radnom mjestu, sigurnost posla, vrijeme putovanja na posao, važnost posla i dani odvojenosti od obitelji ) te socijalna varijabla dostupnosti javnih usluga potpore obiteljima u mjestu prebivališta. Najznačajniji samostalni prediktor interferencije obitelji s plaćenim radom je radna varijabla nedostatak ključnih informacija na radnom mjestu.The aim of this study is to identify the perceived degree of harmonization of paid work and family life in employed mothers within the Croatian Armed Forces and to determine work, family, social and demographic predictors of both types of intereference, the perceived work to family intereference and the perceived family to work interference. Research was conducted on a sample of 624 employed mothers, active soldiers, NCOs and officers, employed in the Croatian Ministry of Defence and Armed Forces. Results show that employed mothers perceived a significantly stronger degree of work to life interference than the degree to which family obligations interfered with their work behaviour. Chosen predictors explain about 38% of variance of evaluations in the interfering influence of work to family and 29% variance of evaluations in the interfering influence of family to work behaviour. In prediction of the work to family interference the best predictors proved to be work variables (time pressure and conflicting demands in the workplace, weekly working hours, days of seperation, job security and availability of organzational support measures), while the independant contribution of certain family variables (the age of the youngest sibling, time dedicated to family obligations and the need to care for the elderly/weak) also proved significant. In the prediction of family to work interference, beside family variables (the age of the youngest sibling, the apportionment of family obligations, the need to care for the elderly/weak, availability of assistance for the wider family and friends), work variables (lack of key information in the workplace, job security, time to commute to work, importance of work and days seperated from the family) also proved to be significant, as well as the social variable of availability of public services for supporting the family where they live. The most significant independant predictor of family to work interference is the work variable of a lack of information in the workplace

DETERMINANTS OF THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN THE ARMED FORCES OF THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA

U radu se prikazuju ključna obilježja politike rodne ravnopravnosti u hrvatskom obrambenom sustavu, kvantitativna analiza dijela sekundarnih podataka i rezultata anketnog istraživanja. Konceptualni model istraživanja utemeljen je na teoriji socijalnog identiteta (Tajfel i Turner, 1979). Cilj istraživanja bio je ispitati u kojoj mjeri sociodemografska obilježja, religioznost, profesionalni kontakti sa ženama, ambivalentni seksizam, stavovi prema ženama u vojsci i iskustvo rodne neravnopravnosti doprinose objašnjenju percepcije rodne ravnopravnosti u vojsci. Ispitan je i posredujući utjecaj stavova prema ženama u vojsci na odnos prediktorskih varijabli i percepcije rodne ravnopravnosti. Uzorak su činili pripadnici djelatnog sastava Oružanih snaga RH (445 muškaraca i 450 žena), a korišten je stratificirani nerazmjerni uzorak te postupak sustavnog slučajnog uzorkovanja. U skladu s teorijskim postavkama rezultati su pokazali da pripadnost određenoj socijalnoj grupi te usporedba vlastite i vanjske grupe dovodi do favoriziranja pripadnika vlastite grupe i većeg diskriminiranja pripadnika vanjske grupe. Nisu utvrđene rodne razlike u percepciji rodne ravnopravnosti, ali su među muškarcima najsnažniju percepciju rodne neravnopravnosti izrazili vojnici te mlađi i niže obrazovani muškarci, a među ženama časnice i žene višeg obrazovanja. Odabrani prediktorski skup bolje je objasnio varijancu kriterija muškaraca (42%) nego žena (26%). Viši stupanj rodne ravnopravnosti percipirali su muškarci koji su zadovoljniji profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama, imaju pozitivnije stavove prema ženama u vojsci i rjeđe su doživjeli rodno uvjetovanu hostilnu diskriminaciju, te žene koje su rjeđe iskusile rodnu diskriminaciju, koje su zadovoljnije profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama i slabije podržavaju benevolentni seksizam o idealizaciji žena. Analize su djelomično potvrdile konceptualni model istraživanja, a posredujući utjecaj stavova prema ženama u vojsci utvrđen je samo za muškarce. Veće zadovoljstvo profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama u vojsci i slabije podržavanje hostilnog seksizma ispitanih muškaraca, putem razvoja pozitivnijih stavova prema ženama u vojsci, doveli su do percepcije više razine rodne ravnopravnosti. Rad naglašava važnost unaprjeđenja postojeće politike i prakse za što je ključno uvažavanje razlika u specifičnim potrebama i iskustvima žena i muškaraca u vojsci te potvrđuje važnu ulogu zapovjednika u promicanju veće tolerancije različitosti.The military is known as a work environment in which the issues of inequity and underrepresentation of women in terms of functions and duties continue to exist. Therefore, the presence of strong gender-specific stereotypes, roles, and attitudes can be noticed in such an environment, as well as the frequent occurrences of gender-based discrimination. This study presents the key features of the gender equality policy in the Croatian Armed Forces (CAF), some secondary data and the results of the quantitative research. As the gender equality agenda has been implemented for the last ten years in the CAF a conceptual model of determinants of the perception of gender equality based on the Social Identity Theory (SIT) was used (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) in this study. According to the SIT theory, social groups play an important role in each individual’s identity. Specifically, belonging to a particular social group affects individual social perception and evaluation of others. Individuals are positively biased towards their own social group and its members because they develop a positive social identity and greater self-esteem within their own group. At the same time, while striving to achieve a positive social identity with their own group, a discrimination against the external social groups and its members occurs (Al Ramiah et al., 2010; Aronson et al., 2005; Vučković Juroš et al., 2014). The aim of the study was to examine the extent to which socio-demographic characteristics, religiosity, professional contacts with women, ambivalent sexism, attitudes towards women in the military and the experience of gender discrimination contribute to explaining the perception of gender equality in the military. Also, the aim was to examine the mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military on the relationship between the predictor variables and the perception of gender equality. Methodology The sample consisted of 445 servicemen and 450 servicewomen including active soldiers, non-commissioned officers, and officers from all organizational units of the CAF. They were selected by using a stratified random sampling technique with a disproportionate allocation. The questionnaire included measures of perception of gender equality, attitudes towards women in the military, ambivalent sexism, professional contact with women in the workplace, personal experiences of gender-based discrimination, indicators of religiosity, and socio-demographic and professional question. Analyses were done using hierarchical regression analyses and path analyses. Results In accordance with the SIT theory, the results indicated that belonging to a certain social group and comparing one's own group with the external group were associated with favoring members of one's own group, and with a greater tendency to discriminate against members of an external group. Furthermore, the study determined the existence of gender differences in the expression of attitudes towards women in the military, as well as ambivalent sexism towards women. Statistically significant differences in the perception of gender equality between men and women were not found. However, additional analyses showed that among men the groups that stand out with the strongest perception of gender inequality were soldiers, younger men and lower educated men. Among women the strongest perception of gender inequality was expressed by female officers and higher educated women. Women were significantly more likely to experience gender-based discrimination in the workplace, both in the career discrimination and the hostile discrimination. The selected set of predictors better explained the variance in the perception of gender equality among men (42%) than among women (26%). Additionally, higher levels of gender equality were perceived by men who were more satisfied with their professional contacts with women, those who expressed more positive attitudes towards women in the military and those who experienced gender-based hostile discrimination in the workplace less often. Similarly, higher levels of gender equality were perceived by women who were more satisfied with their professional contacts with women, those who experienced both types of gender discrimination less often, and women who expressed the benevolent sexism (complementary gender differentiation) less. The results partially confirmed the conceptual model of the study. The mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military was found only among men. More specifically, the results showed that men’s attitudes toward women in the military partially mediate their relationships between hostile sexism and satisfaction with professional contacts with women with their perception of gender equality. In accordance with expectations, greater satisfaction with professional contacts with women and weaker expression of hostile sexism, through the development of more positive attitudes towards women in the military, were associated with the higher level of men’s perception of gender equality. Also, the mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military on the relationship between the experience of gender discrimination and the perception of gender equality among men was not determined. Discussion The study results demonstrated that attitudes towards women in the military have a different impact on the perception of gender relations among men and women, which is partly determined by intergroup relations as well as the specific military context. The results also indicated that the conceptual model of this study was more adapted to the pattern of intergroup relations of the predominant gender group (men). It is, therefore, necessary to develop separate models for women and men. The results of mediation analysis showed that the development of successful professional contacts between men and women in the military can be a particularly effective mechanism for developing positive attitudes towards women in various roles in the military, as well as higher level of men’s perception of gender equality. The above mentioned study findings suggested an important recommendation, which is that commanders can play an important role in creating optimal conditions for the development of intergroup contacts, preventing all forms of discrimination and promoting greater tolerance of diversity in the workplace. It was also suggested that this may be the most appropriate way to change traditional gender attitudes and to develop organizational culture with equal career prospects for women and men in the military. Finally, this would also lead to the optimal use of all human resources in the armed forces. Conclusion In general, this study showed that the existing gender equality policies of the Croatian Armed Forces are not sufficiently effective. This conclusion is confirmed by indicators of educational, horizontal and vertical gender segregation, and based on the results of a survey of attitudes, experiences and perceptions. The study emphasizes the crucial importance of improving gender equality policies and practices taking into account different perceptions, needs and experiences of women and men in the military. Also, the study findings suggest a need for the development of new policies, primarily those that aim to improve work-family balance among military personnel. Furthermore, the study findings emphasize the importance of conducting military trainings based on equal and gender-neutral performance standards to ensure the same levels of professional competencies for women and men in the military. Finally, the findings suggest a development of professional training aimed at raising awareness of the importance of gender issues and enabling service members, particularly commanders, for combating gender discrimination

DETERMINANTS OF THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN THE ARMED FORCES OF THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA

U radu se prikazuju ključna obilježja politike rodne ravnopravnosti u hrvatskom obrambenom sustavu, kvantitativna analiza dijela sekundarnih podataka i rezultata anketnog istraživanja. Konceptualni model istraživanja utemeljen je na teoriji socijalnog identiteta (Tajfel i Turner, 1979). Cilj istraživanja bio je ispitati u kojoj mjeri sociodemografska obilježja, religioznost, profesionalni kontakti sa ženama, ambivalentni seksizam, stavovi prema ženama u vojsci i iskustvo rodne neravnopravnosti doprinose objašnjenju percepcije rodne ravnopravnosti u vojsci. Ispitan je i posredujući utjecaj stavova prema ženama u vojsci na odnos prediktorskih varijabli i percepcije rodne ravnopravnosti. Uzorak su činili pripadnici djelatnog sastava Oružanih snaga RH (445 muškaraca i 450 žena), a korišten je stratificirani nerazmjerni uzorak te postupak sustavnog slučajnog uzorkovanja. U skladu s teorijskim postavkama rezultati su pokazali da pripadnost određenoj socijalnoj grupi te usporedba vlastite i vanjske grupe dovodi do favoriziranja pripadnika vlastite grupe i većeg diskriminiranja pripadnika vanjske grupe. Nisu utvrđene rodne razlike u percepciji rodne ravnopravnosti, ali su među muškarcima najsnažniju percepciju rodne neravnopravnosti izrazili vojnici te mlađi i niže obrazovani muškarci, a među ženama časnice i žene višeg obrazovanja. Odabrani prediktorski skup bolje je objasnio varijancu kriterija muškaraca (42%) nego žena (26%). Viši stupanj rodne ravnopravnosti percipirali su muškarci koji su zadovoljniji profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama, imaju pozitivnije stavove prema ženama u vojsci i rjeđe su doživjeli rodno uvjetovanu hostilnu diskriminaciju, te žene koje su rjeđe iskusile rodnu diskriminaciju, koje su zadovoljnije profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama i slabije podržavaju benevolentni seksizam o idealizaciji žena. Analize su djelomično potvrdile konceptualni model istraživanja, a posredujući utjecaj stavova prema ženama u vojsci utvrđen je samo za muškarce. Veće zadovoljstvo profesionalnim kontaktima sa ženama u vojsci i slabije podržavanje hostilnog seksizma ispitanih muškaraca, putem razvoja pozitivnijih stavova prema ženama u vojsci, doveli su do percepcije više razine rodne ravnopravnosti. Rad naglašava važnost unaprjeđenja postojeće politike i prakse za što je ključno uvažavanje razlika u specifičnim potrebama i iskustvima žena i muškaraca u vojsci te potvrđuje važnu ulogu zapovjednika u promicanju veće tolerancije različitosti.The military is known as a work environment in which the issues of inequity and underrepresentation of women in terms of functions and duties continue to exist. Therefore, the presence of strong gender-specific stereotypes, roles, and attitudes can be noticed in such an environment, as well as the frequent occurrences of gender-based discrimination. This study presents the key features of the gender equality policy in the Croatian Armed Forces (CAF), some secondary data and the results of the quantitative research. As the gender equality agenda has been implemented for the last ten years in the CAF a conceptual model of determinants of the perception of gender equality based on the Social Identity Theory (SIT) was used (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) in this study. According to the SIT theory, social groups play an important role in each individual’s identity. Specifically, belonging to a particular social group affects individual social perception and evaluation of others. Individuals are positively biased towards their own social group and its members because they develop a positive social identity and greater self-esteem within their own group. At the same time, while striving to achieve a positive social identity with their own group, a discrimination against the external social groups and its members occurs (Al Ramiah et al., 2010; Aronson et al., 2005; Vučković Juroš et al., 2014). The aim of the study was to examine the extent to which socio-demographic characteristics, religiosity, professional contacts with women, ambivalent sexism, attitudes towards women in the military and the experience of gender discrimination contribute to explaining the perception of gender equality in the military. Also, the aim was to examine the mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military on the relationship between the predictor variables and the perception of gender equality. Methodology The sample consisted of 445 servicemen and 450 servicewomen including active soldiers, non-commissioned officers, and officers from all organizational units of the CAF. They were selected by using a stratified random sampling technique with a disproportionate allocation. The questionnaire included measures of perception of gender equality, attitudes towards women in the military, ambivalent sexism, professional contact with women in the workplace, personal experiences of gender-based discrimination, indicators of religiosity, and socio-demographic and professional question. Analyses were done using hierarchical regression analyses and path analyses. Results In accordance with the SIT theory, the results indicated that belonging to a certain social group and comparing one's own group with the external group were associated with favoring members of one's own group, and with a greater tendency to discriminate against members of an external group. Furthermore, the study determined the existence of gender differences in the expression of attitudes towards women in the military, as well as ambivalent sexism towards women. Statistically significant differences in the perception of gender equality between men and women were not found. However, additional analyses showed that among men the groups that stand out with the strongest perception of gender inequality were soldiers, younger men and lower educated men. Among women the strongest perception of gender inequality was expressed by female officers and higher educated women. Women were significantly more likely to experience gender-based discrimination in the workplace, both in the career discrimination and the hostile discrimination. The selected set of predictors better explained the variance in the perception of gender equality among men (42%) than among women (26%). Additionally, higher levels of gender equality were perceived by men who were more satisfied with their professional contacts with women, those who expressed more positive attitudes towards women in the military and those who experienced gender-based hostile discrimination in the workplace less often. Similarly, higher levels of gender equality were perceived by women who were more satisfied with their professional contacts with women, those who experienced both types of gender discrimination less often, and women who expressed the benevolent sexism (complementary gender differentiation) less. The results partially confirmed the conceptual model of the study. The mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military was found only among men. More specifically, the results showed that men’s attitudes toward women in the military partially mediate their relationships between hostile sexism and satisfaction with professional contacts with women with their perception of gender equality. In accordance with expectations, greater satisfaction with professional contacts with women and weaker expression of hostile sexism, through the development of more positive attitudes towards women in the military, were associated with the higher level of men’s perception of gender equality. Also, the mediating effect of attitudes towards women in the military on the relationship between the experience of gender discrimination and the perception of gender equality among men was not determined. Discussion The study results demonstrated that attitudes towards women in the military have a different impact on the perception of gender relations among men and women, which is partly determined by intergroup relations as well as the specific military context. The results also indicated that the conceptual model of this study was more adapted to the pattern of intergroup relations of the predominant gender group (men). It is, therefore, necessary to develop separate models for women and men. The results of mediation analysis showed that the development of successful professional contacts between men and women in the military can be a particularly effective mechanism for developing positive attitudes towards women in various roles in the military, as well as higher level of men’s perception of gender equality. The above mentioned study findings suggested an important recommendation, which is that commanders can play an important role in creating optimal conditions for the development of intergroup contacts, preventing all forms of discrimination and promoting greater tolerance of diversity in the workplace. It was also suggested that this may be the most appropriate way to change traditional gender attitudes and to develop organizational culture with equal career prospects for women and men in the military. Finally, this would also lead to the optimal use of all human resources in the armed forces. Conclusion In general, this study showed that the existing gender equality policies of the Croatian Armed Forces are not sufficiently effective. This conclusion is confirmed by indicators of educational, horizontal and vertical gender segregation, and based on the results of a survey of attitudes, experiences and perceptions. The study emphasizes the crucial importance of improving gender equality policies and practices taking into account different perceptions, needs and experiences of women and men in the military. Also, the study findings suggest a need for the development of new policies, primarily those that aim to improve work-family balance among military personnel. Furthermore, the study findings emphasize the importance of conducting military trainings based on equal and gender-neutral performance standards to ensure the same levels of professional competencies for women and men in the military. Finally, the findings suggest a development of professional training aimed at raising awareness of the importance of gender issues and enabling service members, particularly commanders, for combating gender discrimination

VIOLENCE IN FAMILIES AND INTIMATE RELATIONS OF WAR VETERANS AND ACTIVE MILITARY PERSONNEL: RISKS FACTORS AND PREVENTION POSSIBILITIES

U radu se analiziraju dostupni pokazatelji i procjenjuje prisutnost nasilničkog ponašanja u obiteljima hrvatskih vojnih veterana i aktivnih vojnika. Temeljem dostupnih podataka iz literature i specifičnosti vojne profesije analiziraju se ključni rizični čimbenici za pojavu obiteljskog nasilja u vojnoj populaciji. Posebna pozornost posvećuje se stresorima vojne profesije koji negativno djeluju na psihičko i tjelesno zdravlje vojnog osoblja kao i na ukupno obiteljsko funkcioniranje i zdravstvene ishode članova. Zbog iskustva Domovinskog rata, kritički se preispituju obilježja hrvatske vojne populacije, njihove specifičnosti i moguća povezanost s pojavom nasilničkog ponašanja. Posebni naglasak stavlja se na potrebu i mogućnosti otklanjanja ili ublažavanja ovog nepoželjnog ponašanja na različitim društvenim razinama.This article analyses available indicators and evaluates the presence of violent behavior in families of Croatian war veterans and active military personnel. Based on available data and the specificity of the military profession, key risk factors for the appearance of family violence in the military population are analyzed. Special attention is given to stressors of the military profession that negatively affect the psychological and physical health of military personnel as well as the overall functioning of families and health effects of family’s members. Due to experiences from the Homeland War, characteristics of the Croatian military population, their specificities and possible connection to the appearance of violent behavior are critically examined. Special emphasis is placed on the need and possibility for preventive action in removing or mitigation of this unwanted behavior at various social levels