Environmental heterogeneity amplifies behavioural response to a temporal cycle

Resource acquisition is integral to maximise fitness, however in many ecosystems this requires adaptation to resource abundance and distributions that seldom stay constant. For predators, prey availability can vary at fine spatial and temporal scales as a result of changes in the physical environment, and therefore selection should favour individuals that can adapt their foraging behaviour accordingly. The tidal cycle is a short, yet predictable, temporal cycle, which can influence prey availability at temporal scales relevant to movement decisions. Here, we ask whether black‐legged kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla can adjust their foraging habitat selection according to the tidal cycle using GPS tracking studies at three sites of differing environmental heterogeneity. We used a hidden Markov model to classify kittiwake behaviour, and analysed habitat selection during foraging. As expected for a central‐place forager, we found that kittiwakes preferred to forage nearer to the breeding colony. However, we also show that habitat selection changed over the 12.4‐h tidal cycle, most likely because of changes in resource availability. Furthermore, we observed that environmental heterogeneity was associated with amplified changes in kittiwake habitat selection over the tidal cycle, potentially because environmental heterogeneity drives greater resource variation. Both predictable cycles and environmental heterogeneity are ubiquitous. Our results therefore suggest that, together, predictable cycles and environmental heterogeneity may shape predator behaviour across ecosystems

Tracking seabird migration in the tropical Indian Ocean reveals basin-scale conservation need

Summary Understanding marine predator distributions is an essential component of arresting their catastrophic declines.1,2,3,4 In temperate, polar, and upwelling seas, predictable oceanographic features can aggregate migratory predators, which benefit from site-based protection.5,6,7,8 In more oligotrophic tropical waters, however, it is unclear whether environmental conditions create similar multi-species hotspots. We track the non-breeding movements and habitat preferences of a tropical seabird assemblage (n = 348 individuals, 9 species, and 10 colonies in the western Indian Ocean), which supports globally important biodiversity.9,10,11,12 We mapped species richness from tracked populations and then predicted the same diversity measure for all known Indian Ocean colonies. Most species had large non-breeding ranges, low or variable residency patterns, and specific habitat preferences. This in turn revealed that maximum species richness covered >3.9 million km2, with no focused aggregations, in stark contrast to large-scale tracking studies in all other ocean basins.5,6,7,13,14 High species richness was captured by existing marine protected areas (MPAs) in the region; however, most occurred in the unprotected high seas beyond national jurisdictions. Seabirds experience cumulative anthropogenic impacts13 and high mortality15,16 during non-breeding. Therefore, our results suggest that seabird conservation in the tropical Indian Ocean requires an ocean-wide perspective, including high seas legislation.17 As restoration actions improve the outlook for tropical seabirds on land18,19,20,21,22 and environmental change reshapes the habitats that support them at sea,15,16 appropriate marine conservation will be crucial for their long-term recovery and whole ecosystem restoration

Environmental heterogeneity promotes individual specialisation in habitat selection in a widely distributed seabird

1. Individual specialisations in behaviour are predicted to arise where divergence benefits fitness. Such specialisations are more likely in heterogeneous environments where there is both greater ecological opportunity and competition-driven frequency dependent selection. 2. Such an effect could explain observed differences in rates of individual specialisation in habitat selection, as it offers individuals an opportunity to select for habitat types that maximise resource gain while minimising competition; however, this mechanism has not been tested before. 3. Here, we use habitat selection functions to quantify individual specialisations while foraging by black-legged kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla, a marine top predator, at 15 colonies around the United Kingdom and Ireland, along a gradient of environmental heterogeneity. 4. We find support for the hypothesis that individual specialisations in habitat selection while foraging are more prevalent in heterogeneous environments. This trend was significant across multiple dynamic habitat variables that change over short time-scales and did not arise through site fidelity, which highlights the importance of environmental processes in facilitating behavioural adaptation by predators. 5. Individual differences may drive evolutionary processes, and therefore these results suggest that there is broad scope for the degree of environmental heterogeneity to determine current and future population, species and community dynamics

Prey density affects predator foraging strategy in an Antarctic ecosystem

Studying the effects of prey distribution on predator behaviour is complex in systems where there are multiple prey species. The role of prey density in predator behaviour is rarely studied in closed ecosystems of one predator species and one prey species, despite these being an ideal opportunity to test these hypotheses. In this study, we investigate the effect of prey density on the foraging behaviour of a predatory species in an isolated Antarctic ecosystem of effectively a single predatory species, and a single prey species. We use resource selection models to compare prey density in areas utilised by predators (obtained from fine-scale GPS telemetry data) to prey density at randomly generated points (pseudo-absences) throughout the available area. We demonstrate that prey density of breeding Antarctic petrels (Thalassoica antarctica) is negatively associated with the probability of habitat use in its only predator, the south polar skua (Catharacta maccormicki). Skuas are less likely to utilise habitats with higher petrel densities, reducing predation in these areas but these effects are present during chick rearing only, but not during incubation. We suggest that this might be caused by successful group defense strategies employed by petrel chicks, primarily spitting oil at predators

From route to dive: multi-scale habitat selection in a foraging tropical seabird

Comprehending how environmental variability shapes foraging behaviour across habitats is key to unlocking insights into consumer ecology. Seabirds breeding at high latitudes are exemplars of how marine consumers can adapt their behaviours to make use of predictable foraging opportunities, but prey tends to be less predictable in tropical oceanic ecosystems and may require alternative foraging behaviours. Here we used GPS and time-depth recorder loggers to investigate the foraging behaviour of central placed adult red-footed boobies (Sula sula rubripes), a tropical seabird that forages in oceanic waters via diving, or by capturing aerial prey such as flying fish in flight. Dive bout dynamics revealed that red-footed boobies appeared to exploit denser, but more sparsely distributed prey patches when diving further from the colony. Furthermore, although we found no evidence of environmentally driven habitat selection along their foraging routes, red-footed boobies preferentially dived in areas with higher sea surface temperatures and chlorophyll-a concentrations compared to conditions along their foraging tracks. This multi-scale variation implies that habitat selection differs between foraging routes compared to dive locations. Finally, red-footed booby dives were deepest during the middle of the day when light penetration was greatest. Ultimately, we highlight the importance of gaining insights into consumer foraging across different ecosystems, thereby broadening understanding of how animals might respond to changing environmental conditions

From route to dive : multi-scale habitat selection in a foraging tropical seabird

Comprehending how environmental variability shapes foraging behaviour across habitats is key to unlocking insights into consumer ecology. Seabirds breeding at high latitudes are exemplars of how marine consumers can adapt their behaviours to make use of predictable foraging opportunities, but prey tends to be less predictable in tropical oceanic ecosystems and may require alternative foraging behaviours. Here we used GPS and time-depth recorder loggers to investigate the foraging behaviour of central placed adult red-footed boobies (Sula sula rubripes), a tropical seabird that forages in oceanic waters via diving, or by capturing aerial prey such as flying fish in flight. Dive bout dynamics revealed that red-footed boobies appeared to exploit denser, but more sparsely distributed prey patches when diving further from the colony. Furthermore, although we found no evidence of environmentally driven habitat selection along their foraging routes, red-footed boobies preferentially dived in areas with higher sea surface temperatures and chlorophyll-a concentrations compared to conditions along their foraging tracks. This multi-scale variation implies that habitat selection differs between foraging routes compared to dive locations. Finally, red-footed booby dives were deepest during the middle of the day when light penetration was greatest. Ultimately, we highlight the importance of gaining insights into consumer foraging across different ecosystems, thereby broadening understanding of how animals might respond to changing environmental conditions

From route to dive: multi-scale habitat selection in a foraging tropical seabird

Comprehending how environmental variability shapes foraging behaviour across habitats is key to unlocking insights into consumer ecology. Seabirds breeding at high latitudes are exemplars of how marine consumers can adapt their behaviours to make use of predictable foraging opportunities, but prey tends to be less predictable in tropical oceanic ecosystems and may require alternative foraging behaviours. Here we used GPS and time-depth recorder loggers to investigate the foraging behaviour of central placed adult red-footed boobies (Sula sula rubripes), a tropical seabird that forages in oceanic waters via diving, or by capturing aerial prey such as flying fish in flight. Dive bout dynamics revealed that red-footed boobies appeared to exploit denser, but more sparsely distributed prey patches when diving further from the colony. Furthermore, although we found no evidence of environmentally driven habitat selection along their foraging routes, red-footed boobies preferentially dived in areas with higher sea surface temperatures and chlorophyll-a concentrations compared to conditions along their foraging tracks. This multi-scale variation implies that habitat selection differs between foraging routes compared to dive locations. Finally, red-footed booby dives were deepest during the middle of the day when light penetration was greatest. Ultimately, we highlight the importance of gaining insights into consumer foraging across different ecosystems, thereby broadening understanding of how animals might respond to changing environmental conditions