Assessing the validity of the weight pressures in sport scale for male athletes

pre-printMale athletes are subject to sociocultural pressures to attain a lean and muscular physique (e.g., media images), as well as weight pressures from the sport environment (e.g., performance). The purpose of our study was to examine the validity and reliability of a scale designed to measure sport-specific weight pressures in male athletes, the Weight Pressures in Sport Scale for Male Athletes (WPS-M). We examined the factorial validity of the WPS-M, and established the factors' reliability. Further, we tested the convergent and concurrent validity of the WPS-M factors through associations with the theoretically related constructs of body satisfaction, internalization, drive for muscularity, dietary restraint, bulimic symptomology, and general weight pressures for men. Finally, we determined the factors' incremental validity by examining the extent to which the WPS-M factors predicted relevant outcomes beyond that determined by general sociocultural pressures about weight, body, and appearance. Participants were 698 male intercollegiate athletes from multiple states, sports, and competitive levels. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed three latent factors: (a) Coach/Teammate Pressures about Weight, (b) Importance of Body Weight and Appearance, and (c) Pressures about Weight and Body due to the Sport Uniform. Relationships with related constructs were mostly significant and in the expected direction. Regression analyses supported the utility of the WPS-M for predicting variance in disordered eating beyond that determined by general sociocultural weight pressures. In the future, researchers should employ longitudinal designs and recruit diverse samples of male athletes in order to assess temporal relationships and measurement invariance.2013-0

Tinder use, gender, and the psychosocial functioning of young adults

Tinder is a mobile dating app where users evaluate possible matches based primarily on posted photos; limited content is provided as to who each user is. Thus, appearance becomes paramount in users’ decisions about who to swipe left (i.e., reject) or swipe right (i.e., approve). As such, and consistent with objectification theory, men and women who use this mobile app are treated as objects that are viewed, rated, used, and, in many instances, disposed of. Therefore, in a sample 18-34-year-old men (n=187) and women (n=547), we examined Tinder use and gender in relation to internalization, physical appearance comparison, body satisfaction, self-esteem, perceived sociocultural pressures, depression, negative mood, body surveillance, body shame, body appreciation, and dietary intent. A series of MANCOVAs were used to examine the relation of gender and Tinder use to the outcomes. Regardless of gender, Tinder use (vs. nonuse) was associated with more distress across a range of measures, including sociocultural pressures, internalization of appearance ideals, body image concerns, and negative affect. Tinder use, however, was not related to psychological well-being or eating pathology. These findings extend previous studies and affirm the potentially deleterious environment that exists for Tinder users

A Comparison Between Injured and Uninjured Football Players on Selected Psychosocial Variables

The psychological impact of athletic injury on 916 NCAA Division I football players from 42 institutions was examined. The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), and the Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970) were used to assess depression, self-esteem, and trait anxiety, respectively. The Levenson (1974) Locus of Control Scales were used to measure perceptions of three dimensions of control (internal control, powerful others, and chance). Injured student-athletes reported significantly higher levels of depression and life stress than uninjured student-athletes. The findings, which were consistent with previous research, suggested that injury can be a significant stressor for student-athletes

The Effectiveness of a Learning Strategies Course on College Student-Athletes' Adjustment, Use of Learning Strategies, and Academic Performance

We examined the effectiveness of a learning strategies course in assisting at-risk male and female freshmen student athletes in improving their academic performances. Participants included 129 freshman student-athletes (Female=72 and Male= 57) from a large southern university. Eighty-six participants were enrolled in the student-athlete PSYC 1000 class, either in Fall 2003 or Fall 2004; 43 were student-athletes who entered the university during the same time but were not required to enroll in the course because their test scores and high school grades met or exceeded the university's academic requirements for open admission. The learning strategies course (PSYC 1000) is based on psychological and educational theories and models associated with learning, self-regulation, personal and career development, communication, stress and coping, and health. The overall goals of the course are to (1) assist students in developing effective strategies to be proficient learners, (2) increase their understanding of how people change and develop, and (3) apply this knowledge across academic programs and in all areas of their lives to make positive, self-enhancing changes. The course was based on the same syllabus and lesson plans that are used in other PSYC 1000 sections for students who are not athletes, however, the lesson plans are tailored to encompass the specific demands of the student-athlete experience. The at-risk student athletes reported im­provements across a wide range of study skills, such as comprehension, concentration and use of test-taking strategies, during their first semester of college when they were enrolled in the course. In comparison to regu­larly admitted student-athletes who did not take the course, the at-risk student athletes earned comparable grades during their first two semes­ters. Although neither academic nor noncognitive variables predicted the male student athletes' first and second semester GPA's, female athletes' ability to manage their time as well as their willingness to take responsi­bility for their learning was positively related to their academic perform­ances. Regarding their adjustment to college, the at-risk student athletes showed improvement in the personal/emotional area, but slight decreases with respect to academics and social relationships. Overall, these findings support learning strategies courses as an effectiveness mechanism for improving the academic performance of at-risk student athletes

Personality as a Predictor of Hitting and Pitching Performances Among Professional Baseball Players

Research regarding personality as predictors of objective physical performances has been limited and equivocal. We examined longitudinally whether personality predicted baseball pitchers’ (n = 119) or hitters’ (n = 115) performances after controlling for past performances. Through regression analyses, we determined that personality did not significantly predict the player’ performances during their first year in Minor League Baseball (MiLB). Our results indicate that, at least in the short-term, personality may be a poor predictor of such performances. Research is needed to determine if personality’s effects may occur over a longer period of time, such as through the development of psychological tools/strategies (e.g., motivation, coping) that are associated with improved performances

The Relationship of Motivational Climates, Mindsets, and Goal Orientations to Grit in Male Adolescent Soccer Players

Across a variety of domains, such as in academics and in the military, grit is a significant predictor of performance, even after controlling for dimensions of innate ability. However, little is known about how grit develops or the psychosocial factors that may contribute to its presence (i.e. motivational climates, mindsets, and goal orientations). Although sport is a natural context in which to examine grit, both as a predictor and an outcome, few studies have done so. Thus, within the framework of achievement motivation theory, we examined the relationships of the perceived motivational climate created by coaches (task-involving vs. ego-involving), athletes’ mindset (growth vs. fixed) and goal orientation (task vs. ego), to their grit. Male high school varsity soccer players (N = 81) completed questionnaires measuring these constructs. Having a growth mindset and a task goal orientation, but not the perception of a task-involving climate, significantly predicted higher levels of grit (R2 = .15); ego-related constructs were not significantly related to grit. Components of achievement motivation theory, specifically mindset (fundamental belief regarding whether or not ability can change with hard work and effort) and goal orientation (approaching tasks to either improve ability or demonstrate ability), may be particularly salient in athletes developing a perspective that allows them to work effectively and diligently toward long-term goals. Limitations and future directions are discussed

Exercise attitudes and behaviours among retired female collegiate athletes

Objectives: The present study explored exercise attitudes and behaviours among retired female collegiate athletes. Design: A survey design incorporating both closed and open-ended questions was adopted. Method: A total of 218 former NCAA Division I female athletes (n = 144 gymnastics; n = 74 swimming/diving) provided details on their current exercise behaviours and their thoughts regarding exercise since retiring from collegiate sport. Results: No relations were found between years since retirement and athletes’ current exercise frequency, types of exercise activities, and reasons for exercising. Despite reporting activity levels consistent with recommendations (5 days/week, 1 hour per session), retired athletes remained dissatisfied with their activity levels and struggled to integrate exercise alongside occupational, academic and social demands. Conclusions: Athletes may require support in adapting to an independent and less intense exercise regime on retirement. Future research may look to explore exercise attitudes and behaviours among retired athletes from a longitudinal perspective

Learning to eat again: intuitive eating practices among retired female collegiate athletes

The present study used an open-ended survey to collect information about current eating practices and coping strategies among 218 retired female athletes. An inductive and deductive thematic analysis revealed three themes relevant to the intuitive eating framework -- Permission to eat, Recognising internal hunger and satiety cues, and Eating to meet physical and nutritional needs. Athletes described feeling liberated with regards to their eating following retirement from sport, and for some this included an alleviation of disordered eating practices. These changes, however, required an effortful process of recalibration, during which athletes had to re-learn and reinterpret their body’s physiological signals of hunger and satiety. Additional research is needed to understand just how this process unfolds and how retired athletes can be supported in developing a healthier and more adaptive approach to eating

Changes in body image perceptions upon leaving elite sport: The retired female athlete paradox

Little is known about the evolution of female athlete body image into retirement. In this study, 218 retired athletes from aesthetic sports answered a series of closed and open ended questions regarding bodily changes since retirement. Years since retirement was unrelated to current weight status (e.g., underweight, normal weight), what they were doing about current weight (e.g., lose weight), and satisfaction with current weight (all p’s > .69). Overall, 74.3% thought they were normal weight, yet 55% were dissatisfied with their weight and 59.6% were trying to lose weight. A rigorous thematic analysis of the qualitative data yielded 4 core themes that characterized participants’ experiences: 1) A move towards the feminine ideal; 2) Feeling fat, flabby and ashamed; 3) A continued commitment to a former self; and 4) Conflicting ideals: The retired female athlete paradox. Perceived muscle loss was considered indicative of either increased fat (dissatisfaction) or increased femininity (satisfaction). For some retired athletes, the satisfaction brought on by newfound femininity was complicated by a coinciding and conflicting commitment to a muscular athletic physique. Practical applications include strategies for sport psychologists to better support athletes in coping with the body changes that occur on retirement from elite sport

Prevalence of Eating Disorders and Disordered Eating Behaviors Among Male Collegiate Athletes

This article discusses the prevalence of eating disorders and disordered eating behaviors among male collegiate athletes