The Role of the Ubiquitin Proteasome Pathway in Papillomavirus Pathogenicity

To establish an infection in the host cell, Papillomaviruses (PVs) encode two major oncoproteins, E6 and E7, which interact with numerous cellular proteins and interfere with many cellular pathways. We use HPV E6 and RhPV-1 E7 oncoproteins as tools to investigate some of the most important characteristics of the high-risk HPV E6 proteins: their association with the ubiquitin pathway and ability to direct proteasomal degradation of PDZ domain-containing proteins. We show that E6 protein levels are dependent on the E6AP ubiquitin ligase: in its absence, E6 is degraded in a proteasome dependent manner. A proteomic analysis for HPV-18 E6 interacting partners showed that HPV-18 E6 interacts with EDD, another HECT domain ubiquitin ligase. EDD does not direct the degradation of p53 or PDZ domain-containing substrates, but appears to regulate E6AP levels, with consequent effects on E6 protein levels and its p53 targeting. These studies demonstrate a complex interplay between E6, EDD and E6AP for regulating E6’s degradation of its substrate proteins. Rhesus papillomavirus 1 (RhPV-1) is a high-risk mucosal papillomavirus, but its E6 protein has no PDZ-binding motif. However, we show a remarkable evolutionary conservation, with the PDZ-binding motif present on the RhPV-1 E7 protein instead. Furthermore, this directs the binding of RhPV-1 E7 to Par3, a PDZ domain-containing protein controlling the polarity regulation pathway also controlled by hDlg and hScrib, the PDZ domain-containing targets of HPV-18 and HPV-16 E6. RhPV-1 E7 degrades Par3 analogously to HPV E6’s degradation of its PDZ substrates, and also appears to interact with EDD. These studies demonstrate that PDZ domain-containing cell polarity regulators and critical components of the ubiquitin proteasome pathway are common targets of evolutionarily diverse oncogenic mucosal papillomaviruses. This suggests that these pathways represent essential steps in the viral life cycles and in these viruses’ ability to induce malignancy

Functional Roles of E6 and E7 Oncoproteins in HPV-Induced Malignancies at Diverse Anatomical Sites

Approximately 200 human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect human epithelial cells, of which the alpha and beta types have been the most extensively studied. Alpha HPV types mainly infect mucosal epithelia and a small group of these causes over 600, 000 cancers per year worldwide at various anatomical sites, especially anogenital and head-and-neck cancers. Of these the most important is cervical cancer, which is the leading cause of cancer-related death in women in many parts of the world. Beta HPV types infect cutaneous epithelia and may contribute towards the initiation of non- melanoma skin cancers. HPVs encode two oncoproteins, E6 and E7, which are directly responsible for the development of HPV-induced carcinogenesis. They do this cooperatively by targeting diverse cellular pathways involved in the regulation of cell cycle control, of apoptosis and of cell polarity control networks. In this review, the biological consequences of papillomavirus targeting of various cellular substrates at diverse anatomical sites in the development of HPV-induced malignancies are highlighted

Do or Die: HPV E5, E6 and E7 in Cell Death Evasion

Abstract: Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect the dividing cells of human epithelia and hijack the cellular replication machinery to ensure their own propagation. In the effort to adapt the cell to suit their own reproductive needs, the virus changes a number of processes, amongst which is the ability of the cell to undergo programmed cell death. Viral infections, forced cell divisions and mutations, which accumulate as a result of uncontrolled proliferation, all trigger one of several cell death pathways. Here, we examine the mechanisms employed by HPVs to ensure the survival of infected cells manipulated into cell cycle progression and proliferation

Interaction of HPV E6 oncoproteins with specific proteasomal subunits

AbstractThe Human Papillomavirus E6 oncoproteins have the capacity to target several of their cellular interacting partners for proteasome mediated degradation, and recent proteomic analyses suggest a close involvement of E6 with the cellular proteasome machinery. In this study we have performed an extensive analysis of the capacity of different E6 oncoproteins to interact with specific proteasome components. We demonstrate that multiple subunits of the proteasome can be bound by different HPV E6 oncoproteins. Furthermore, whilst most of these interactions appear independent of the E6AP ubiquitin ligase, the association of E6 with the major ubiquitin-accepting proteasome subunit, S5a, does require the presence of E6AP. One consequence of the interaction between E6/E6AP and S5a is enhanced ubiquitination of this proteasome subunit. These results suggest a complex interplay between E6 and the proteasome, only some aspects of which are dependent upon the E6AP ubiquitin ligase

Epigenetički biljezi u tumorima glave i vrata: posebni osvrt na tumore orofarinksa povezane s HPV-om

Unatoč kontinuiranim naporima da se identificiraju molekularni biljezi za rano otkrivanje tumora glave i vrata (engl. HNC, head and neck cancer) te poboljšanoj terapiji, ukupno preživljenje i prognoza bolesnika s HNC-om i dalje su loši. Znanstveni dokazi sugeriraju da tumori povezani s HPV-om imaju bolju prognozu i preživljenje. Nadalje, epigenetičke promjene su općenito često uključene u karcinogenezu, napredovanje tumora glave i vrata te rezistenciju na terapiju. Stoga razumijevanje i karakterizacija epigenetičkih modifikacija povezanih s karcinogenezom tumora glave i vrata obećavaju identifikaciju epigenetičkih biljega za rano otkrivanje raka i poboljšanje terapijskih pristupa u borbi protiv raka. U ovom preglednom radu dan je osvrt na trenutno znanje o epigenetičkim modifikacijama, odnosno metiliranju DNA i mikroRNA uočenim kod HNC-a, posebno kod tumora orofarinksa pozitivnih na HPV

Cancer-causing human papillomavirus E6 proteins display major differences in the phospho-regulation of their PDZ interactions

Previous studies have shown that the cancer-causing high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) E6 oncoproteins have PDZ binding potential, an activity which is important for their ability to support the viral life cycle and to cooperate in the induction of malignancy. However, PDZ interactions are not constitutive, and they can be negatively regulated by phosphorylation within the E6 PDZ binding motif (PBM). In this study, we have investigated the differential regulation of the HPV E6 PBMs from diverse high-risk HPV types. We show that, depending on the HPV type, PDZ binding activity can be regulated by phosphorylation with protein kinase A (PKA) or AKT, which, in turn, inhibits PDZ recognition. Such regulation is highly conserved between E6 proteins derived from HPV-16, HPV-18, and HPV-58 while being somewhat weaker or absent from other types such as HPV-31, HPV-33, and HPV-51. In the case of HPV31, PKA phosphorylation occurs within the core of the E6 protein and has no effect on PDZ interactions, and this demonstrates a surprising degree of heterogeneity among the different high-risk HPV E6 oncoproteins in how they are regulated by different cellular signaling pathways. IMPORTANCE This study demonstrated that the cancer-causing HPV E6 oncoproteins are all subject to posttranslational modification of their extreme C-terminal PDZ binding motifs through phosphorylation. However, the identities of the kinase are not the same for all HPV types. This demonstrates a very important divergence between these HPVs, and it suggests that changes in cell signaling pathways have different consequences for different high-risk virus infections and their associated malignancies

Interaction of the Human Papillomavirus E6 Oncoprotein with Sorting Nexin 27 Modulates Endocytic Cargo Transport Pathways

A subset of high-risk Human Papillomaviruses (HPVs) are the causative agents of a large number of human cancers, of which cervical is the most common. Two viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7, contribute directly towards the development and maintenance of malignancy. A characteristic feature of the E6 oncoproteins from cancer-causing HPV types is the presence of a PDZ binding motif (PBM) at its C-terminus, which confers interaction with cellular proteins harbouring PDZ domains. Here we show that this motif allows E6 interaction with Sorting Nexin 27 (SNX27), an essential component of endosomal recycling pathways. This interaction is highly conserved across E6 proteins from multiple high-risk HPV types and is mediated by a classical PBM-PDZ interaction but unlike many E6 targets, SNX27 is not targeted for degradation by E6. Rather, in HPV-18 positive cell lines the association of SNX27 with components of the retromer complex and the endocytic transport machinery is altered in an E6 PBM-dependent manner. Analysis of a SNX27 cargo, the glucose transporter GLUT1, reveals an E6-dependent maintenance of GLUT1 expression and alteration in its association with components of the endocytic transport machinery. Furthermore, knockdown of E6 in HPV-18 positive cervical cancer cells phenocopies the loss of SNX27, both in terms of GLUT1 expression levels and its vesicular localization, with a concomitant marked reduction in glucose uptake, whilst loss of SNX27 results in slower cell proliferation in low nutrient conditions. These results demonstrate that E6 interaction with SNX27 can alter the recycling of cargo molecules, one consequence of which is modulation of nutrient availability in HPV transformed tumour cells

Human Papillomaviruses-Associated Cancers: An Update of Current Knowledge

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs), which are small, double-stranded, circular DNA viruses infecting human epithelial cells, are associated with various benign and malignant lesions of mucosa and skin. Intensive research on the oncogenic potential of HPVs started in the 1970s and spread across Europe, including Croatia, and worldwide. Nowadays, the causative role of a subset of oncogenic or high-risk (HR) HPV types, led by HPV-16 and HPV-18, of different anogenital and head and neck cancers is well accepted. Two major viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7, are directly involved in the development of HPV-related malignancies by targeting synergistically various cellular pathways involved in the regulation of cell cycle control, apoptosis, and cell polarity control networks as well as host immune response. This review is aimed at describing the key elements in HPV-related carcinogenesis and the advances in cancer prevention with reference to past and ongoing research in Croati