Social Exchange and the Maintenance of Order in Status-Stratified Systems

This paper examines the role of social exchange in the construction of microorder within status-differentiated relations. How order is constructed and maintained in the context of social inequality is a classic sociological problem. We use a serendipitous finding from a recent experiment as a stimulus for theorizing an important feature of this larger problem of order. The finding is that, in an experiment where African-American females negotiated with white males, the white males received much larger payoffs than the African-American females. Yet, despite substantial power and profit differentiation advantaging white males, both individuals reported positive feelings (pleasure/satisfaction and interest/excitement) to the same degree, which contradicts most research on emotional responses to power. We argue that these similar emotional responses, in the context of substantial payoff inequalities, are due to parallel, joint effects of (a) status processes that create and legitimate initial profit differences and (b) exchange processes that make salient a relationship between the actors during repeated exchange. This explanation integrates notions of status value, referential structure, and legitimacy from status theories with notions of relational cohesion and shared responsibility from exchange theories. Broadly, the paper proposes some ways to productively interweave ideas from status and exchange theories to explain the emergence or maintenance of enduring social inequalities

The Theory of Relational Cohesion: Review of a Research Program

In this paper we analyze and review the theory of relational cohesion and attendant program of research. Since the early 1990s, the theory has evolved to answer a number of basic questions regarding cohesion and commitment in social exchange relations. Drawing from the sociology of emotion and modem theories of social identity, the theory asserts that joint activity in the form of frequent exchange unleashes positive emotions and perceptions of relational cohesion. In turn, relational cohesion is predicted to be the primary cause of commitment behavior in a range of situations. Here we outline the theory of relational cohesion, tracing its development through the present day, and summarize the corpus of empirical evidence for the theory’s claims. We conclude by looking ahead to future projects and discussing some of the more general issues informed by our work

Bringing Emotions into Social Exchange Theory

We analyze and review how research on emotion and emotional phenomena can elaborate and improve contemporary social exchange theory. After identifying six approaches from the psychology and sociology of emotion, we illustrate how these ideas bear on the context, process, and outcome of exchange in networks and groups. The paper reviews the current state of the field, develops testable hypotheses for empirical study, and provides specific suggestions for developing links between theories of emotion and theories of exchange

Emotion and Group Cohesion in Productive Exchange

This study refines and experimentally tests a theory of relational cohesion that explains how and when actors become committed to one another in the context of multiactor exchange. The theory asserts that frequent social exchange results in (1) positive emotions that solidify and strengthen the person-to-group bond and (2) uncertainty reduction that renders the focal group more salient in relation to others. These two mechanisms produce a sense of psychological group formation and ultimately increase observable acts of commitment. In a “productive exchange” setting, three actors negotiate a joint venture that requires the assent of all members. The exchanges featured two forms of commitment behavior: the giving of small token gifts and the decision to invest in a three-way prisoner’s dilemma. The results suggest that positive emotion and uncertainty reduction are theoretically distinct and affect commitment behavior through different mechanisms. The article concludes by discussing the general implications for commitment and social order

The Emergence of Embedded Relations and Group Formation in Networks of Competition

This study examines how and when small networks of self-interested agents generate a group tie or affiliation at the network level. A group affiliation is formed when actors (a) perceive themselves as members of a group and (b) share resources with each other despite an underlying competitive structure. We apply a concept of structural cohesion to small networks of exchange and identify two dimensions of such networks that foster a group affiliation: the network-wide potential for inclusion in exchanges and the inequality of structural power. These structural properties are theorized to generate positive emotions and cognitions that promote collectively oriented behavior toward others in the exchange network, even if such behavior runs counter to individual self-interest. We theorize and test how and when such structural properties give rise to embedded social relations, thereby forging connections between micro theories of exchange and macro theories of social embeddedness

Emotion and Group Cohesion in Productive Exchange

This study refines and experimentally tests a theory of relational cohesion that explains how and when actors become committed to one another in the context of multiactor exchange. The theory asserts that frequent social exchange results in (1) positive emotions that solidify and strengthen the person-to-group bond and (2) uncertainty reduction that renders the focal group more salient in relation to others. These two mechanisms produce a sense of psychological group formation and ultimately increase observable acts of commitment. In a “productive exchange” setting, three actors negotiate a joint venture that requires the assent of all members. The exchanges featured two forms of commitment behavior: the giving of small token gifts and the decision to invest in a three-way prisoner’s dilemma. The results suggest that positive emotion and uncertainty reduction are theoretically distinct and affect commitment behavior through different mechanisms. The article concludes by discussing the general implications for commitment and social order

Function-feature analysis of emergency sanitation technologies: towards systematic innovation

There has been increased recognition of the need for innovation in emergency sanitation products and technologies. To support effective design, this paper explores an approach systematically innovate by framing the problem from the perspective of the functions (the desired outcomes of a design) that features (characteristics of a design) achieve. The paper illustrates examples of how such functions can be identified: by analysing existing designs, studying the literature and drawing lessons learned from case studies. Functions may be interrelated and vary in nature and importance in different circumstances. Functions can be achieved by implementing one or more design features. At the same time, features can contribute to achieving one or more functions. By understanding and consolidating all possible functions and features, this approach can support innovation in several ways, most fundamentally by ensuring that important design considerations are not overlooked during the product development process

Point Defects and Localized Excitons in 2D WSe2

Identifying the point defects in 2D materials is important for many applications. Recent studies have proposed that W vacancies are the predominant point defect in 2D WSe2, in contrast to theoretical studies, which predict that chalcogen vacancies are the most likely intrinsic point defects in transition metal dichalcogenide semiconductors. We show using first principles calculations, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and scanning transmission electron microscopy experiments, that W vacancies are not present in our CVD-grown 2D WSe2. We predict that O-passivated Se vacancies (O_Se) and O interstitials (Oins) are present in 2D WSe2, because of facile O2 dissociation at Se vacancies, or due to the presence of WO3 precursors in CVD growth. These defects give STM images in good agreement with experiment. The optical properties of point defects in 2D WSe2 are important because single photon emission (SPE) from 2D WSe2 has been observed experimentally. While strain gradients funnel the exciton in real space, point defects are necessary for the localization of the exciton at length scales that enable photons to be emitted one at a time. Using state-of-the-art GW-Bethe-Salpeter-equation calculations, we predict that only Oins defects give localized excitons within the energy range of SPE in previous experiments, making them a likely source of previously observed SPE. No other point defects (O_Se, Se vacancies, W vacancies and Se_W antisites) give localized excitons in the same energy range. Our predictions suggest ways to realize SPE in related 2D materials and point experimentalists toward other energy ranges for SPE in 2D WSe2

A Case Study of Excreta Disposal Following the 2006 Java Earthquake*

Providing safe excreta disposal following disasters is important for disease prevention and the safety and dignity of the affected population. This is challenging because every emergency varies due to the nature of the disaster, local conditions and the characteristics of the affected population. This paper investigates the impact of the 2006 Java earthquake on excreta disposal needs and the response to those needs. Relevant documents were retrieved from the ReliefWeb database, complemented by a literature search. The case study highlights gaps in rapidly providing latrines on a large scale. Three months after the disaster, only 57% of the latrines targeted had been provided. One way to address this problem is to better understand the factors affecting excreta disposal needs and response, allowing appropriate solutions to be identified more effectively

Susceptibility to tuberculosis is associated with variants in the ASAP1 gene encoding a regulator of dendritic cell migration

Human genetic factors predispose to tuberculosis (TB). We studied 7.6 million genetic variants in 5,530 people with pulmonary TB and in 5,607 healthy controls. In the combined analysis of these subjects and the follow-up cohort (15,087 TB patients and controls altogether), we found an association between TB and variants located in introns of the ASAP1 gene on chromosome 8q24 (P = 2.6 × 10−11 for rs4733781; P = 1.0 × 10−10 for rs10956514). Dendritic cells (DCs) showed high ASAP1 expression that was reduced after Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, and rs10956514 was associated with the level of reduction of ASAP1 expression. The ASAP1 protein is involved in actin and membrane remodeling and has been associated with podosomes. The ASAP1-depleted DCs showed impaired matrix degradation and migration. Therefore, genetically determined excessive reduction of ASAP1 expression in M. tuberculosis–infected DCs may lead to their impaired migration, suggesting a potential mechanism of predisposition to TB