12 research outputs found
Understanding the Thickness-Dependent Performance of Organic Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells: The Influence of Mobility, Lifetime, and Space Charge
We investigate the reasons for the dependence of photovoltaic
performance
on the absorber thickness of organic solar cells using experiments
and drift-diffusion simulations. The main trend in photocurrent and
fill factor versus thickness is determined by mobility and lifetime
of the charge carriers. In addition, space charge becomes more and
more important the thicker the device is because it creates field
free regions with low collection efficiency. The two main sources
of space-charge effects are doping and asymmetric mobilities. We show
that for our experimental results on Si-PCPDTBT:PC<sub>71</sub>BM
(polyĀ[(4,40-bisĀ(2-ethylhexyl)ĀdithienoĀ[3,2-<i>b</i>:20,30-<i>d</i>]Āsilole)-2,6-diyl-<i>alt</i>-(4,7-bisĀ(2-thienyl)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)-5,50-diyl]:[6,6]-phenyl
C71-butyric acid methyl ester) solar cells, the influence of doping
is most likely the dominant influence on the space charge and has
an important effect on the thickness dependence of performance
Understanding the Effect of Donor Layer Thickness and a MoO<sub>3</sub> Hole Transport Layer on the Open-Circuit Voltage in Squaraine/C<sub>60</sub> Bilayer Solar Cells
Small molecule organic solar cells
are becoming increasingly efficient
through improved molecular design. However, there is still much to
be understood regarding device operation. Here we study bilayer solar
cells employing a 2,4-bisĀ[4-(<i>N,N</i>-diisobutylamino)-2,6-dihydroxyphenyl]
squaraine (SQ) donor and fullerene acceptor to probe the effect of
donor layer thickness and a MoO<sub>3</sub> electron transport layer
on device performance. The thickness of SQ is seen to drastically
affect the open-circuit voltage (<i>V</i><sub>OC</sub>)
and fill factor (FF), while the short circuit current is not altered
significantly. The fact that the <i>V</i><sub>OC</sub> of
the bilayers with thin (6 nm) donor layers shows a strong dependence
on the material and workfunction of the anode cannot be explained
with a model for a perfect bilayer. Recombination of electrons from
C<sub>60</sub> at the anode contact has to be possible to understand
the strong effect of the anode workfunction. Using numerical simulations
and a simple two-diode model we show that the most likely interpretation
of the observed effects is that for thin SQ layers, the roughness
of the interface is high enough to allow electrons in the C<sub>60</sub> to tunnel through the SQ to recombine directly at the anode. Thicker
SQ layers will block most of these recombination pathways, which explains
the drastic dependence of <i>V</i><sub>OC</sub> on thickness.
Bulk-heterojunction devices were also fabricated to illustrate the
effect of anode material on the <i>V</i><sub>OC</sub>
Understanding the Thickness-Dependent Performance of Organic Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells: The Influence of Mobility, Lifetime, and Space Charge
We investigate the reasons for the dependence of photovoltaic
performance
on the absorber thickness of organic solar cells using experiments
and drift-diffusion simulations. The main trend in photocurrent and
fill factor versus thickness is determined by mobility and lifetime
of the charge carriers. In addition, space charge becomes more and
more important the thicker the device is because it creates field
free regions with low collection efficiency. The two main sources
of space-charge effects are doping and asymmetric mobilities. We show
that for our experimental results on Si-PCPDTBT:PC<sub>71</sub>BM
(polyĀ[(4,40-bisĀ(2-ethylhexyl)ĀdithienoĀ[3,2-<i>b</i>:20,30-<i>d</i>]Āsilole)-2,6-diyl-<i>alt</i>-(4,7-bisĀ(2-thienyl)-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)-5,50-diyl]:[6,6]-phenyl
C71-butyric acid methyl ester) solar cells, the influence of doping
is most likely the dominant influence on the space charge and has
an important effect on the thickness dependence of performance
On the Differences between Dark and Light Ideality Factor in Polymer:Fullerene Solar Cells
Ideality
factors are derived from either the slope of the dark
current/voltage curve or the light intensity dependence of the open-circuit
voltage in solar cells and are often a valuable method to characterize
the type of recombination. In the case of polymer:fullerene solar
cells, the ideality factors derived by the two methods usually differ
substantially. Here we investigate the reasons for the discrepancies
by determining both ideality factors differentially as a function
of voltage and by comparing them with simulations. We find that both
the dark and light ideality factors are sensitive to bulk recombination
mechanisms at the internal donor:acceptor interface, as is often assumed
in the literature. While the interpretation of the dark ideality factor
is difficult due to resistive effects, determining the light ideality
factor <i>differentially</i> indicates that the open-circuit
voltage of many polymer:fullerene solar cells is limited by surface
recombination, which leads to light ideality factors decreasing below
one at high voltage
Understanding the Apparent Charge Density Dependence of Mobility and Lifetime in Organic Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells
Energetic disorder in organic semiconductors
leads to strong dependence
of recombination kinetics and mobility on charge density. However,
observed mobilities and reaction orders are normally interpreted assuming
uniform charge carrier distributions. In this paper, we explore the
effect of the spatial distribution of charge on the determination
of mobility and recombination rate as a function of average charge
density. Since the spatial gradient changes when the thickness of
a device is varied, we study thickness series of two different polymer:fullerene
systems and measure the charge density dependence of mobility and
lifetime. Using simulations, we can show that the high apparent reaction
orders frequently observed in the literature result from the spatial
gradient of charge density at open circuit. However, the mobilities,
measured at short circuit, are less affected by the gradients and
therefore may show substantially different apparent charge density
dependence than the recombination constants, especially for small
device thicknesses
Performance Evaluation of Semitransparent Perovskite Solar Cells for Application in Four-Terminal Tandem Cells
The
efficiency of perovskite-based tandem solar cells and the respective
efficiency gain over the single-junction operation of the bottom cell
strongly depend on the performance of the component cells. Thus, a
fair comparison of reported top cells is difficult. We therefore compute
the tandem cell efficiency for the combination of several semitransparent
perovskite top solar cells and crystalline silicon or chalcopyrite
bottom cells from the literature. We focus on four-terminal configurations
but also estimate and discuss the differences between four- and two-terminal
configurations. For each top cell, we thereby determine the tandem
cell performance as a function of the bottom cell efficiency, which
results in a linear relationship. From these data, we extract two
parameters to quantify the suitability of the top cell: (i) the slope
of the tandem vs. bottom cell efficiency, which is the effective transparency
of the top cell, and (ii) the tandem cell efficiency for a targeted
bottom cell. These two figures of merit were calculated for a representative
set of bottom cells and may serve for comparison of semitransparent
perovskite top cells in the future
Analysis of the Relationship between Linearity of Corrected Photocurrent and the Order of Recombination in Organic Solar Cells
We address the claim that the dependence of the ācorrected photocurrentā (defined as the difference between the light and dark currents) upon light intensity can be used to determine the charge recombination mechanism in an organic solar cell. We analyze a poly(3-hexylthiophene):[6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (P3HT:PCBM) device using corrected photocurrent and transient photovoltage experiments and show that whereas the corrected photocurrent is linear in light intensity the charge recombination rate scales superlinearly with charge carrier density. We explain this apparent discrepancy by measuring the charge carrier densities at different applied voltages and light intensities. We show that it is only safe to infer a linear recombination mechanism from a linear dependence of corrected photocurrent on light intensity under the following special conditions: (i) the photogenerated charge carrier density is much larger than the dark carrier density and (ii) the photogenerated carrier density is proportional to the photogeneration rate
Performance Evaluation of Semitransparent Perovskite Solar Cells for Application in Four-Terminal Tandem Cells
The
efficiency of perovskite-based tandem solar cells and the respective
efficiency gain over the single-junction operation of the bottom cell
strongly depend on the performance of the component cells. Thus, a
fair comparison of reported top cells is difficult. We therefore compute
the tandem cell efficiency for the combination of several semitransparent
perovskite top solar cells and crystalline silicon or chalcopyrite
bottom cells from the literature. We focus on four-terminal configurations
but also estimate and discuss the differences between four- and two-terminal
configurations. For each top cell, we thereby determine the tandem
cell performance as a function of the bottom cell efficiency, which
results in a linear relationship. From these data, we extract two
parameters to quantify the suitability of the top cell: (i) the slope
of the tandem vs. bottom cell efficiency, which is the effective transparency
of the top cell, and (ii) the tandem cell efficiency for a targeted
bottom cell. These two figures of merit were calculated for a representative
set of bottom cells and may serve for comparison of semitransparent
perovskite top cells in the future
Sensitivity of the MottāSchottky Analysis in Organic Solar Cells
The application of MottāSchottky analysis to capacitanceāvoltage
measurements of polymer:fullerene
solar cells is a frequently used method to determine doping densities
and built-in voltages, which have important implications for understanding
the device physics of these cells. Here we compare drift-diffusion
simulations with experiments to explore the influence and the detection
limit of doping in situations where device thickness and doping density
are too low for the depletion approximation to be valid. The results
of our simulations suggest that the typically measured values on the
order of 5 Ć 10<sup>16</sup> cm<sup>ā3</sup> for doping
density in thin films of 100 nm or lower may not be reliably determined
from capacitance measurements and could originate from a completely
intrinsic active layer. In addition, we explain how the violation
of the depletion approximation leads to a strong underestimation of
the actual built-in voltage by the built-in voltage <i>V</i><sub>MS</sub> determined by MottāSchottky analysis
Competition between the Charge Transfer State and the Singlet States of Donor or Acceptor Limiting the Efficiency in Polymer:Fullerene Solar Cells
We study the appearance and energy of the charge transfer
(CT)
state using measurements of electroluminescence (EL) and photoluminescence
(PL) in blend films of high-performance polymers with fullerene acceptors.
EL spectroscopy provides a direct probe of the energy of the interfacial
states without the need to rely on the LUMO and HOMO energies as estimated
in pristine materials. For each polymer, we use different fullerenes
with varying LUMO levels as electron acceptors, in order to vary the
energy of the CT state relative to the blend with [6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric
acid methyl ester (PCBM). As the energy of the CT state emission approaches
the absorption onset of the blend component with the smaller optical
bandgap, <i>E</i><sub>opt,min</sub> ā” minĀ{<i>E</i><sub>opt,donor</sub>; <i>E</i><sub>opt,acceptor</sub>}, we observe a transition in the EL spectrum from CT emission to
singlet emission from the component with the smaller bandgap. The
appearance of component singlet emission coincides with reduced photocurrent
and fill factor. We conclude that the open circuit voltage <i>V</i><sub>OC</sub> is limited by the smaller bandgap of the
two blend components. From the losses of the studied materials, we
derive an empirical limit for the open circuit voltage: <i>V</i><sub>OC</sub> ā² <i>E</i><sub>opt,min</sub>/<i>e</i> ā (0.66 Ā± 0.08)ĀeV