Non-proliferation in areas of limited statehood: the contribution of international regimes to controlling mass destruction capacities in war and crisis zones

Controlling nuclear, biological or chemical weapons is often particularly difficult where the proliferation risks are high: in areas of limited statehood. This raises the question of how to adapt international regimes so that they are better able to contribute to the disarmament and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) under the challenging conditions of war and crisis. Experiences over the past few years in states such as Iraq, Libya and Syria - where central governments do not completely control the respective state's territory - have been mixed. They do show, however, that multilateral non-proliferation regimes play an indispensable role in controlling WMD, including in crisis areas. First, it is important to gain and focus the political support of the state in question, the relevant great powers and international organisations. Second, the practical conditions for a mission to secure and disarm WMD and investigate alleged use of such weapons have to be established. To obtain these goals, existing rules should be made flexible and adapted. Regimes should be reformed in line with the motto, "As few rules as necessary, as much preparation as possible". Four aspects need to be kept in mind: prevention should be reinforced, crisis planning needs to be improved, stakeholders have to be included, and the role of the Security Council should be upgraded. Medium-size powers such as Germany have the capacities and political weight to promote the evolution of global regulatory instruments. This would also counteract proliferation in Europe's neighbourhood. (Autorenreferat

Flow chart of the participants in the present study who were included in the analyses.

<p>Flow chart of the participants in the present study who were included in the analyses.</p

The effects of parental education level, family structure and neighbourhood of residence, and its interactions on the probability of completing secondary education at age 21 among individuals born in the period 1983–1989.

<p>The effects of parental education level, family structure and neighbourhood of residence, and its interactions on the probability of completing secondary education at age 21 among individuals born in the period 1983–1989.</p

Individual, family, and neighbourhood characteristics according to parental educational level among individuals born in the period 1980–1989.

<p>Individual, family, and neighbourhood characteristics according to parental educational level among individuals born in the period 1980–1989.</p

Lung function parameters improve prediction of VO_2peak in an elderly population: The Generation 100 study

<div><p>Peak oxygen uptake (VO_2peak) is an indicator of cardiovascular health and a useful tool for risk stratification. Direct measurement of VO_2peak is resource-demanding and may be contraindicated. There exist several non-exercise models to estimate VO_2peak that utilize easily obtainable health parameters, but none of them includes lung function measures or hemoglobin concentrations. We aimed to test whether addition of these parameters could improve prediction of VO_2peak compared to an established model that includes age, waist circumference, self-reported physical activity and resting heart rate. We included 1431 subjects aged 69-77 years that completed a laboratory test of VO_2peak, spirometry, and a gas diffusion test. Prediction models for VO_2peak were developed with multiple linear regression, and goodness of fit was evaluated. Forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV₁), diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide and blood hemoglobin concentration significantly improved the ability of the established model to predict VO_2peak. The explained variance of the model increased from 31% to 48% for men and from 32% to 38% for women (p<0.001). FEV₁, diffusing capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide and hemoglobin concentration substantially improved the accuracy of VO_2peak prediction when added to an established model in an elderly population.</p></div

Summary of multiple linear regressions models predicting VO_2peak.

<p>Summary of multiple linear regressions models predicting VO_2peak.</p

Description of prediction models.

<p>Description of prediction models.</p

Flowchart showing participant excluded due to various missing data.

<p>Flowchart showing participant excluded due to various missing data.</p

Bland-Altman plots for predictions models.

<p>Bland-Altman plots for predictions models.</p

Additional file 2: of Association between pulmonary function and peak oxygen uptake in elderly: the Generation 100 study

Word document. Full description of models. Description of statistical models with coefficients. (DOCX 22 kb