The long-term effects of development aid - Empirical studies in rural West Africa.

This article is based on field studies in rural West Africa. It concentrates on the socio-structural effects of development aid in the long run, in contrast to numerous available evaluation reports on the short-run effects of development projects. The study reveals that superficial generalisations or condemnations of development projects, like the big farmers benefit at the expense of the smaller ones, or the men benefit at the expense of the women, do not hold up to verification. Quite to the contrary one observes a wide range of specific adapted forms by which the target groups react to the demands and offers of development projects, and thereby transform their own social structure. In short, one observes a great diversity of social self-organisation. The bureaucratic structures of the development administration do, however, unfortunately - more often than not - ignore the social dynamic of their target groups which they nevertheless sustain unconsciously. Development aid has become an important political and economic factor in most African countries. Its financial impact often exceeds that of the national budget. It contributes, therefore, significantly to the development of a bureaucratic class and of its clients: the project development degenerates into a project nationalization / bureaucratization. This contrasts vividly with the strategies of the peasants. Men and women at village level do not accept any longer the paternalistic development approach. They just select what they need out of the packages of solutions that are offered to them, while they develop their own solutions, like a variety of seeds adapted to their specific resource endowments, diversified sources of income, different strategies of accumulation and risk prevention. All this allows for a gradual evolution by variation and selection. The dynamic of the rural society is to a large extent due to a competition of different (strategic) groups, opposed to one another, about the partitioning of the cake of development aid. Normally this struggle between different vested interests is covered up by the rhetoric of development planning. Planned development has up to now proven to be to rigid, to be able to take account of the complex and subtle fabric of self organisation. Aid sometimes appears to be a second best substitute for a vision of a democratic society. This is due to the fact that the structures we are aiming for in the long run - which are to allow for open markets, an orientation of the producers at the resources and needs of the nation, and last not least, the growth of indigenous structures of self-help - would require a responsible and democratic government, as well as the guarantee of civil rights, accountability, an independent judiciary, freedom of the press, etc.; up to now, however, all these elements are still oppressed by the commando state itself, well nourished by the various forms of technical and financial aid.development cooperation; ODA; evaluation; Africa; social structure;

The long-term effects of development aid: empirical studies in rural West Africa

This article is based on field studies in rural West Africa. It concentrates on the socio-structural effects of development aid in the long run, in contrast to numerous available evaluation reports on the short-run effects of development projects. The study reveals that superficial generalisations or condemnations of development projects, like the big farmers benefit at the expense of the smaller ones, or the men benefit at the expense of the women, do not hold up to verification. Quite to the contrary one observes a wide range of specific adapted forms by which the target groups react to the demands and offers of development projects, and thereby transform their own social structure. In short, one observes a great diversity of social self-organisation. The bureaucratic structures of the development administration do, however, unfortunately - more often than not - ignore the social dynamic of their target groups which they nevertheless sustain unconsciously. Development aid has become an important political and economic factor in most African countries. Its financial impact often exceeds that of the national budget. It contributes, therefore, significantly to the development of a bureaucratic class and of its clients: the project development degenerates into a project nationalization / bureaucratization. This contrasts vividly with the strategies of the peasants. Men and women at village level do not accept any longer the paternalistic development approach. They just select what they need out of the packages of solutions that are offered to them, while they develop their own solutions, like a variety of seeds adapted to their specific resource endowments, diversified sources of income, different strategies of accumulation and risk prevention. All this allows for a gradual evolution by variation and selection. The dynamic of the rural society is to a large extent due to a competition of different (strategic) groups, opposed to one another, about the partitioning of the cake of development aid. Normally this struggle between different vested interests is covered up by the rhetoric of development planning. Planned development has up to now proven to be to rigid, to be able to take account of the complex and subtle fabric of self organisation. Aid sometimes appears to be a second best substitute for a vision of a democratic society. This is due to the fact that the structures we are aiming for in the long run - which are to allow for open markets, an orientation of the producers at the resources and needs of the nation, and last not least, the growth of indigenous structures of self-help - would require a responsible and democratic government, as well as the guarantee of civil rights, accountability, an independent judiciary, freedom of the press, etc.; up to now, however, all these elements are still oppressed by the commando state itself, well nourished by the various forms of technical and financial aid.Cet article est basé sur des études de terrain en Afrique de l'Ouest rural. Il se concentre sur les effets socio-structurelles de l'aide au développement dans le long terme, contrairement à de nombreux rapports d'évaluation disponibles sur les effets à court terme des projets de développement. L'étude révèle que des généralisations superficielles ou condamnations de projets de développement, comme les gros agriculteurs profitent au détriment des plus petits, ou les hommes bénéficient d'avantages au détriment des femmes, ne tiens pas. Bien au contraire, on observe une vaste gamme de formes adaptées spécifiques par lesquels les groupes cibles réagissent aux demandes et les offres de projets de développement, et ainsi transformer leur propre structure sociale. En bref, on observe une grande diversité de l'auto-organisation sociale. Les structures bureaucratiques de l'administration du développement, cependant, ignorent malheureusement - le plus souvent - la dynamique sociale de leurs groupes cibles dont ils soutiennent néanmoins inconsciemment. L'aide au développement est devenue un facteur politique et économique important dans la plupart des pays africains. Son impact financier dépasse souvent celle du budget national. Il contribue donc de manière significative au développement d'une classe bureaucratique et de ses clients: le développement du projet dégénère en un projet de nationalisation / bureaucratisation. Cela contraste vivement avec les stratégies des paysans. Hommes et femmes au niveau du village n’accepter plus la démarche de développement paternaliste. Ils sélectionnent tout ce dont ils ont besoin sur les paquets de solutions qui leur sont offertes, alors qu'ils développent leurs propres solutions, comme une variété de semences adaptées à leurs dotations en ressources spécifiques, diversification des sources de revenus, stratégies d'accumulation différentielles et la prévention des risques. Tout ceci permet une évolution progressive de variation et de sélection. La dynamique de la société rurale est dans une large mesure due à un concours de différents groupes (stratégiques), par opposition à un autre, sur le partage du gâteau de l'aide au développement. Normalement, cette lutte entre les différents intérêts est couvert par la rhétorique de la planification du développement. Développement planifié était jusqu'à présent trop rigide, pour être en mesure de prendre en compte le tissu complexe et subtile de l'auto-organisation. Aide semble parfois être un substitut à une vision d'une société démocratique. Cela est dû au fait que les structures que nous visons dans le long terme - qui doivent permettre l'ouverture des marchés, une orientation des producteurs à des ressources et des besoins de la nation, la croissance des structures autochtones d'auto-assistance - exigerait un gouvernement responsable et démocratique, ainsi que la garantie des droits civils, une justice indépendante, la liberté de la presse, etc . Jusqu'à présent, cependant, tous ces éléments sont toujours opprimés par l'état commando lui-même, bien nourrie par les diverses formes d'aide technique et financière

Ethnologie und außeruniversitäre Praxis

In der akademischen Ethnologie wird häufig verdrängt, dass die meisten Absolventen und Absolventinnen heute außerhalb der Universität arbeiten, die wenigsten Dozenten aber diese Berufswelt aus eigener Anschauung kennen. Dabei gibt es mittlerweile vermutlich auch in Deutschland mehr nicht-akademische als akademische Ethnologen. An der Universität wird jedoch wenig darüber reflektiert, welche Kompetenzen das Studium der Ethnologie vermittelt, die für die Praxis von Bedeutung sind. Dies ist nicht in einem technischen Sinne gemeint. Absolventen erwähnen in diesem Zusammenhang eher einen gewissen ‚Erkenntnisstil‘, eine bestimmte Herangehensweise an Probleme. Stichworte sind hier systematischer Perspektivenwechsel, das Einnehmen des ‚emischen Blicks‘, die Aufmerksamkeit für das Informelle und für verdeckte Strukturen, ein eher normfreies Herangehen an gesellschaftliche Probleme, kulturelle Offenheit für unterschiedliche Realitäten, Sensibilität für die Verwendung von Sprache, auf der Basis genauen Hinhören, Sensibilität für das Nicht-Gesagte und die Selbstreflexion in Bezug auf die eigene  Erkenntnisposition. Noch weniger wird in der akademischen Ethnologie darüber reflektiert, welches theoretische Potential die außerakademische Praxis hat

Les projets et les politiques de développement, sont‑ils des préoccupations légitimes de l'anthropologie ?

L'Afrique sub‑saharienne a constitué depuis les années 70 un point de convergence et de concentration de l'aide internationale au développement. On essaya avec cette aide d'endiguer la dégradation massive de la situation économique de la plupart de ces États et, avant tout, celle des conditions de vie de la majorité de leurs populations. Que cette aide au développement ait pu atteindre ses objectifs est douteux ; même ses critères propres de succès attestent du contraire. Pourtant, l'aide au ..

Alberto Arce, Negotiating agricultural development : Entanglements of bureaucrats and rural producers in Western Mexico (Wageningen Studies in Sociology. 34), Wageningen : Agricultural University 1993.ISBN 9047‑54‑283‑0 ; 187 pp.

Development aid projects are not simply a matter of the mechanical implementation of predefined programmes. They involve a permanent process of negotiation between actors who often represent very different interests, strategies and "life worlds". They are the prototype of a social and cultural "interface" and should, therefore, be se en as privileged places for anthropological observation and analysis, given that cultural difference has been the main focus of interest since the establishment ..

Alberto Arce, Negotiating agricultural development : Entanglements of bureaucrats and rural producers in Western Mexico (Wageningen Studies in Sociology. 34), Wageningen : Agricultural University 1993.ISBN 9047‑54‑283‑0 ; 187 pp.

Development aid projects are not simply a matter of the mechanical implementation of predefined programmes. They involve a permanent process of negotiation between actors who often represent very different interests, strategies and "life worlds". They are the prototype of a social and cultural "interface" and should, therefore, be se en as privileged places for anthropological observation and analysis, given that cultural difference has been the main focus of interest since the establishment ..

The development of new, low-cost perfluoroalkylether fluids with excellent low and high-temperature properties

A series of perfluoroalkylether (PFAE) fluids were synthesized by direct fluorination. Viscosity-temperature properties, oxidation stabilities, oxidation-corrosion properties, and lubricity were determined. The fluids were tested in the presence of common elastomers to check for compatibility. The bulk modulus of each was measured to determine if any could be used as nonflammable aircraft hydraulic fluid. It was determined that as the carbon to oxygen ratio decreases, the viscometric properties improve, the fluids may become poor lubricants, the bulk modulus increases, the surface tension increases, and the fluid density increases. The presence of difluoromethylene oxide units in the polymer does not seriously lower the oxidation and oxidation-corrosion stabilities as long as the difluoromethylene oxide units are separated by other units