Utilizing Remote Sensing and Geospatial Techniques to Determine Detection Probabilities of Large Mammals

Whether a species is rare and requires protection or is overabundant and needs control, an accurate estimate of population size is essential for the development of conservation plans and management goals. Wildlife censuses in remote locations or over extensive areas are logistically difficult, frequently biased, and time consuming. My dissertation examined various techniques to determine the probability of detecting animals using remotely sensed imagery. We investigated four procedures that integrated unsupervised classification, texture characteristics, spectral enhancements, and image differencing to identify and count animals in remotely sensed imagery. The semi-automated processes had relatively high errors of over-counting (i.e., greater than 60%) in contrast to low (i.e. less than 19%) under-counting errors. The single-day image differencing had over-counting errors of 53% while the manual interpretation had over-counting errors of 19%. The probability of detection indicates the ability of a process or analyst to detect animals in an image or during an aerial wildlife survey and can adjust total counts to estimate the size of a population. The probabilities of detecting an animal in remotely sensed imagery with semi-automated techniques, single-day image differencing, or manual interpretation were high (e.g. ≥ 80%). Single-day image differencing resulted in the highest probability of detection suggesting this method could provide a new technique for managers to estimate animal populations, especially in open, grassland habitats. Remotely sensed imagery can be successfully used to identify and count animals in isolated or remote areas and improve management decisions. Sightability models, used to estimate population abundances, are derived from count data and the probability of detecting an animal during a census. Global positioning systems (GPS) radio-collared bison in the Henry Mountains of south-central Utah provided a unique opportunity to examine remotely sensed physiographic and survey characteristics for known occurrences of double-counted and missed animals. Bison status (detected, missed, or double-counted) was determined by intersecting helicopter survey paths with bison travel paths during annual helicopter surveys. The probability of detecting GPS-collared bison during the survey ranged from 91% in 2011 to 88% in 2012

Changes in Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites in Captive Coyotes (\u3ci\u3eCanis latrans\u3c/i\u3e): Influence of Gender, Time, and Reproductive Status

Reproduction is considered an energetically and physiologically demanding time in the life of an animal. Changes in physiological stress are partly reflected in changes in glucocorticoid metabolites and can be measured from fecal samples. We examined levels of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) in 24 captive coyotes (Canis latrans) to investigate responses to the demands of reproduction. Using 12 pairs of coyotes (five pairs produced pups, seven pairs did not), we analyzed 633 fecal samples covering 11 biological periods (e.g., breeding, gestation, and lactation). Levels of fGCMs showed high individual variability, with females having higher fGCM levels than males. The production of pups showed no statistical effect on fGCM levels among females or males. Among females, fGCM levels were highest during 4–6 weeks of gestation compared to other periods but were not significantly different between pregnant and nonpregnant females. Among males, the highest fGCM levels were during 1–3 weeks of gestation compared to other periods, but were not significantly different between males with a pregnant mate versus nonpregnant mate. Of females producing pups, litter size did not influence fGCM levels. Given that they were fed ample food throughout the year, we found that the demands of producing pups did not appear to statistically influence measures of fGCM concentrations in captive coyotes

Influence of Behavioral State, Sex, and Season on Resource Selection by Jaguars (Panthera onca): Always on the Prowl?

How a predator uses its landscape to move through its territory and acquire prey is a fundamental question for scientific research. The influence of abiotic and biotic factors on space use of large carnivores has profound implications for their future management and conservation. In the Pantanal, Brazil, jaguars (Panthera onca) are the apex predator, but conflicts with cattle depredations pose a risk to their future conservation. We examined whether behavioral state, sex, and season influenced how jaguars used the landscape in the Pantanal. To accomplish this, we radio‐collared four females and six males; radio‐collared jaguars were monitored for 76 radio‐months with 11,787 GPS locations acquired. We developed resource selection functions (RSFs) examining how female and male jaguars used their landscape during three behavioral states (moving, killing native prey, killing cattle) during two seasons (dry, wet). From the RSF models, we found similar variables and relationships of landscape characteristics that jaguars selected for when moving and when depredating native prey and cattle. While moving, jaguars selected for locations that were either in dense cover or very near dense cover, with higher plant diversity and closer to water than available across the landscape. While null models suggested jaguars opportunistically depredated native prey in the dry season and cattle in the wet season, there was some indication they selected for specific landscape characteristics, mainly dense cover when killing cattle in the dry season and native prey in the wet season. Both sexes killed native prey and cattle within dense cover or close to dense cover as expected of an ambush predator. Particular habitat types were not important as long as there was dense cover for concealment. Additionally, jaguars killed prey closer to water than was available on the landscape. The similar variables across the models showed the importance of dense cover and distance to dense cover during all three behavioral states indicating jaguars in the Pantanal were “always on the prowl.” Understanding the spatial requirements for jaguars during the acquisition of native prey and cattle may lead to improved management strategies to allow for continued coexistence of jaguars in an area of traditional cattle production

Influence of behavioral state, sex, and season on resource selection by jaguars (\u3ci\u3ePanthera onca\u3c/i\u3e): Always on the prowl?

How a predator uses its landscape to move through its territory and acquire prey is a fundamental question for scientific research. The influence of abiotic and biotic factors on space use of large carnivores has profound implications for their future management and conservation. In the Pantanal, Brazil, jaguars (Panthera onca) are the apex predator, but conflicts with cattle depredations pose a risk to their future conservation. We examined whether behavioral state, sex, and season influenced how jaguars used the landscape in the Pantanal. To accomplish this, we radio-collared four females and six males; radiocollared jaguars were monitored for 76 radio-months with 11,787 GPS locations acquired. We developed resource selection functions (RSFs) examining how female and male jaguars used their landscape during three behavioral states (moving, killing native prey, killing cattle) during two seasons (dry, wet). From the RSF models, we found similar variables and relationships of landscape characteristics that jaguars selected for when moving and when depredating native prey and cattle. While moving, jaguars selected for locations that were either in dense cover or very near dense cover, with higher plant diversity and closer to water than available across the landscape. While null models suggested jaguars opportunistically depredated native prey in the dry season and cattle in the wet season, there was some indication they selected for specific landscape characteristics, mainly dense cover when killing cattle in the dry season and native prey in the wet season. Both sexes killed native prey and cattle within dense cover or close to dense cover as expected of an ambush predator. Particular habitat types were not important as long as there was dense cover for concealment. Additionally, jaguars killed prey closer to water than was available on the landscape.The similar variables across the models showed the importance of dense cover and distance to dense cover during all three behavioral states indicating jaguars in the Pantanal were “always on the prowl.” Understanding the spatial requirements for jaguars during the acquisition of native prey and cattle may lead to improved management strategies to allow for continued coexistence of jaguars in an area of traditional cattle production

Demographic and temporal variations in immunity and condition of polar bears (\u3ci\u3eUrsus maritimus\u3c/i\u3e) from the southern Beaufort Sea

Assessing the health and condition of animals in their natural environment can be problematic. Many physiological metrics, including immunity, are highly influenced by specific context and recent events to which researchers may be unaware. Thus, using a multifaceted physiological approach and a context-specific analysis encompassing multiple time scales can be highly informative. Ecoimmunological tools in particular can provide important indications to the health of animals in the wild.We collected blood and hair samples from free-ranging polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in the southern Beaufort Sea and examined the influence of sex, age, and reproductive status on metrics of immunity, stress, and body condition during 2013–2015.We examined metrics of innate immunity (bactericidal ability and lysis) and stress (hair cortisol, reactive oxygen species, and oxidative barrier), in relation to indices of body condition considered to be short term (urea to creatinine ratio; UC ratio) and long term (storage energy and body mass index). We found the factors of sex, age, and reproductive status of the bear were critical for interpreting different physiological metrics. Additionally, the metrics of body condition were important predictors for stress indicators. Finally,many of these metrics differed between years, illustrating the need to examine populations on a longer time scale. Taken together, this study demonstrates the complex relationship between multiple facets of physiology and how interpretation requires us to examine individuals within a specific context

Landscape of stress: Tree mortality influences physiological stress and survival in a native mesocarnivore

Climate change and anthropogenic modifications to the landscape can have both positive and negative effects on an animal. Linking landscape change to physiological stress and fitness of an animal is a fundamental tenet to be examined in applied ecology. Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone that can be used to indicate an animal’s physiological stress response. In the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, fishers (Pekania pennanti) are a threatened mesocarnivore that have been subjected to rapid landscape changes due to anthropogenic modifications and tree mortality related to a 4-year drought. We measured cortisol concentrations in the hair of 64 fishers (41 females, 23 males) captured and radio-collared in the Sierra National Forest, California. We addressed two main questions: (1) Is the physiological stress response of fishers influenced by anthropogenic factors, habitat type, canopy cover, and tree mortality due to drought in their home range? (2) Does the physiological stress response influence survival, reproduction, or body condition? We examined these factors within a fisher home range at 3 scales (30, 60, 95% isopleths). Using model selection, we found that tree mortality was the principle driver influencing stress levels among individual fishers with female and male fishers having increasing cortisol levels in home ranges with increasing tree mortality. Most importantly, we also found a link between physiological stress and demography where female fishers with low cortisol levels had the highest annual survival rate (0.94), whereas females with medium and high cortisol had lower annual survival rates, 0.78 and 0.81, respectively. We found no significant relationships between cortisol levels and body condition, male survival, or litter size. We concluded that tree mortality related to a 4-year drought has created a “landscape of stress” for this small, isolated fisher population

Injury Scores and Spatial Responses of Wolves Following Capture: Cable Restraints Versus Foothold Traps

Wolves (Canis lupus) have been captured with foothold traps for several decades to equip them with radiocollars for population monitoring. However, trapping in most areas is limited to spring, summer, and autumn as cold winter temperatures can lead to frozen appendages in trapped animals. In addition, conflicts arise when domestic dogs encounter these traps in nonwinter seasons. An alternative capture method is the use of cable restraint devices (modified neck snares) in the winter. We evaluated injury scores, movement patterns, and space use of wolves captured in cable restraint devices and foothold traps in north‐central Minnesota, USA, during 2012–2016. Injury scores did not differ between capture techniques; however, movement patterns and space use were different. We found that the movement away from the capture site appeared to plateau by approximately 8–10 days for wolves captured by either foothold traps or cable restraints, but wolves captured in traps travelled farther away. Daily movement rates reached an asymptote approximately 14 days earlier for wolves captured with cable restraints as compared with wolves caught with foothold traps. We found the space use among wolves caught with cable restraint devices plateaued in a shorter time frame than wolves caught with foothold traps whether using days since capture (38 days earlier) or number of locations (149 locations earlier). When we controlled for seasonal effects and the presence of a capture using locational data collected 6 months later, there was no difference in space use. We concluded that wolves captured in cable restraints recovered more quickly from the capture and resumed space use and activity patterns more rapidly than wolves captured with foothold traps. Published 2019. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA

Space use in free-ranging canids: Are gonadal hormones required for territory maintenance?

Fertility control among carnivores has been used to reduce depredations on livestock and wild neonates, population control, modify behavior, inhibit genetic introgression, and reduce human–wildlife conflicts. Although there is considerable knowledge on techniques to sterilize carnivores, there is little information concerning how the absence of gonadal hormones influences behavior, space use, and survival of wild canids. We examined territorial fidelity, home-range size and overlap, and survival of 179 surgically sterilized free-ranging canids (124 coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823), 55 coyote – red wolf (Canis rufus Audubon and Bachman, 1851) hybrids) with gonadal hormones present (tubal-ligated females (n = 70), vasectomized males (n = 73)) versus absent (spayed females (n = 22), neutered males (n = 14)). The absence of gonadal hormones did not influence annual home-range size and home-range overlap, territory fidelity, and annual survival rates. Additionally, no differences were detected across sexes and hormonal treatments in annual home-range size, percent home-range overlap, annual home-range residency rates, and annual survival rates. Methods of fertility control that do not keep gonadal organs intact may prove useful for management without concern for changes in behavior, mainly territoriality, space use, and survival. La régulation de la fertilité chez les carnivores a été utilisée pour réduire la déprédation du bétail et des nouveaunés d’espèces sauvages, réguler des populations, modifier des comportements, prévenir l’introgression génétique et réduire les conflits entre animaux sauvages et humains. Si les connaissances sur les méthodes de stérilisation des carnivores sont considérables, celles sur l’influence de l’absence d’hormones sexuelles sur le comportement, l’utilisation de l’espace et la survie des canidés sauvages sont très limitées. Nous avons comparé la fidélité territoriale, la taille et le chevauchement des domaines vitaux et la survie de 179 canidés (124 coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823), 55 hybrides coyote – loup roux (Canis rufus Audubon et Bachman, 1851)) en liberté stérilisés de manière chirurgicale présentant des hormones sexuelles (femelles aux trompes ligaturées (n = 70), mâles vasectomisés (n = 73)) ou non (femelles châtrées (n = 22), mâles castrés (n = 14)). L’absence d’hormones sexuelles n’a pas eu d’influence sur la taille du domaine vital annuel et sur le chevauchement des domaines vitaux, la fidélité au territoire et les taux de survie annuelle. En outre, aucune différence n’a été relevée entre les sexes et les différents traitements hormonaux en ce qui concerne la taille du domaine vital annuelle, le pourcentage de chevauchement des domaines vitaux, la fréquence de résidence dans les domaines vitaux et les taux de survie annuelle. Les méthodes de régulation de la fertilité qui ne maintiennent pas intacts les organes sexuels pourraient s’avérer utiles pour la gestion sans entraîner de répercussions sur les comportements, en particulier la territorialité, l’utilisation de l’espace et la survie

Using the placeholder concept to reduce genetic introgression of an endangered carnivore

One of the most endangered species is the red wolf, Canis rufus. Reintroduction of the red wolf began in 1987, but in 1993 hybridization between coyotes (Canis latrans) and wolves was documented. To reduce genetic introgression, coyotes and coyote–wolf hybrids were captured, sterilized, and released as “placeholders”. Placeholders held territories until either displaced or killed by a wolf, or management personnel removed them before releasing a wolf. We evaluated the placeholder concept by examining the number of animals sterilized and released, likelihood of displacement by a wolf, factors influencing displacements, territory fidelity of placeholders, and survival rates and causes of mortality of placeholders and wolves. Of the 182 placeholders, 125 were coyotes and 57 were hybrids. From 1999 to 2013, 51 placeholders were displaced or killed by wolves, and 16 were removed by management personnel. Thus, 37% of the placeholders were displaced leading to occupancy by a wolf. Most displacements occurred in winter (43%) and were always by the same sex. Males were more likely to be displaced than females. Home range characteristics influencing the probability of displacement included home-range size (i.e., more placeholders displaced from larger home ranges) and road density (i.e., more placeholders displaced from home ranges with lower road density). Annual survival of placeholders was higher than wolves in 12 of 14 years, with cause-specific mortality similar among wolves and placeholders. Placeholders provided territories for wolves to colonize, yet reduced the production of hybrid litters, thereby limiting genetic introgression to \u3c 4% coyote ancestry in the wolf population