Sentencing and Treatment of Juvenile Offenders: A Review and Critique

Adolescents account for a large percentage of crime. Given this, it is vital that we are constantly examining and critiquing the juvenile justice system to ensure positive outcomes such as low recidivism. This thesis takes an in-depth look at the ways in which the United States responds to this unique class of offenders and which treatment options are most effective. Several factors play a role in the selection of a program for individuals in the juvenile justice system, including definitions of violence, assessment, and availability of the treatment desired

Vulnerable defendants in the criminal courts: a review of provision for adults and children

A report on the treatment of vulnerable defendants within the criminal courts of England and Wales. The report is in two parts: Part I is concerned with vulnerable adult defendants, and particularly those with learning disabilities; Part II is about child defendants – that is, defendants aged between 10 and 17

Common and cryptic Aspergillus species – one health pathogens

Fungal Aspergillus species cause invasive and chronic disease in humans and other animals. This thesis investigated cryptic and common Aspergillus species in A. section Fumigati; their prevalence in Australia and virulence factors impacting the efficacy of the most commonly used antifungal drugs, triazoles. An environmental (soil and air) investigation of 104 Aspergillus isolates for cryptic A. sect. Fumigati species, focusing on the A. viridinutans species complex (AVSC), found a moderate risk of exposure to known pathogenic and cryptic species, but low risk AVSC exposure in indoor and outdoor domestic environments. A new AVSC species was discovered, A. frankstonensis (morphology; ITS region, BenA, CalM, MCM7, actin and RPB2 gene sequencing; antifungal susceptibility; and extrolite analysis are described). Sequencing (ITS, BenA) of clinical isolates from captive birds (n=30) identified A. fumigatus as the most common cause of disease and A. restrictus as pathogenic. Triazole resistance amongst A. fumigatus isolates from clinical and environmental samples is documented over two studies, identifying a low prevalence in Australia. The first investigated pathogenic A. fumigatus isolates from dogs and cats (n=50), finding triazole resistance in one Australian isolate from a dog in the early 1990’s (Sensititre™ YeastOne™YO8). The second investigated clinical (148 human, 21 veterinary) and environmental (n=185) Australian isolates (VIPcheck™ and Sensititre™ YeastOne™ YO10), confirming triazole resistance in three human origin isolates, associated with cyp51A mutations TR34/L98H and G54R. Triazole susceptibility (CLSI) of 37 AVSC isolates were investigated, detecting high triazole minimum inhibitory concentrations (84% of isolates). Compared to wild-type A. fumigatus, high rates of cyp51A mutations were detected on sequencing; however protein homology modelling did not confer resistance. This research informs our understanding of A. sect. Fumigati pathogens in Australia

Housing Recovery Through Social Capital: Puerto Rico after Hurricane Maria

Puerto Rico was devastated by Hurricane Maria on September 20, 2017. Due to a delayed and insufficient official response from the local and federal governments and other aid agencies, the effects are still crippling more than a year after the event. When official response networks failed, communities often engaged in informal reconstruction processes to facilitate their recovery. This research seeks to explain why certain communities were effective in reconstructing on their own and uses social capital theory as the theoretical framework. This study was conducted in four municipalities in Puerto Rico (Adjuntas, Barranquitas, Loíza, and Utuado). A mixed methods approach was adopted in this study which included interviews (N=31 with community members, local business owners and stakeholder representatives in Adjuntas, Barranquitas and Yabucoa) and door to door households surveys (N=163 in Loíza). Data analysis included qualitative analysis of the interviews where the researchers coded main social capital themes (e.g. linking, bridging and bonding). Data analysis of surveys included chi squared tests evaluating the frequency of social capital forms and informal reconstruction. The results show a significant relationship between informal reconstruction with bridging and linking social capital. Results will contribute to theory and practice of social capital mobilization in post disaster recovery contexts especially in the context where housing is ineligible for official aid. Understanding informal reconstruction through mobilization of social capital will contribute to identifying how communities can use resources available to them in times of crisis and need

Disability and the criminal justice system in Zambia

Drawing on multi-method research conducted in 2013-2014, this paper considers the extent and nature of disadvantage experienced by individuals with psychosocial and intellectual disabilities (PID) who come into contact with criminal justice system in Zambia. The research was conducted as part of a wider project aiming to bring about improvements in how people with PID are dealt with by criminal justice services. The research activities included interviews with 29 individuals with PID who had experienced the criminal justice system as suspects, defendants or prisoners (‘self-advocates’). A focus group and interviews were also conducted with family members of people with PID who had criminal justice experience. The study found that people with PID in contact with criminal justice services in Zambia are disadvantaged and discriminated against routinely and systematically. Like all detainees, they experience harsh and at times brutal conditions of detention. However, because of their disabilities, such experiences can be more keenly felt: their disabilities may be exacerbated by detention or by limited or non-existent health care; and they are likely to be less resourceful than other detainees and, therefore, less able to cope with the privations of detention

Essential scrutiny or a national embarrassment? Experts respond to the Hansard Society’s report on Prime Minister’s Questions

The Hansard Society recently published research which showed the public’s disapproval of the shouting and braying that takes place at the weekly Prime Minister’s Question time. But is this merely a sign of a healthy democracy? We asked a number of experts on Parliament and democracy to respond to the research, and give their views as to whether this ritual is worth the trouble

Structure of the master regulator Rns reveals an inhibitor of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli virulence regulons

Enteric infections caused by the gram-negative bacteria enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), Vibrio cholerae, Shigella flexneri, and Salmonella enterica are among the most common and affect billions of people each year. These bacteria control expression of virulence factors using a network of transcriptional regulators, some of which are modulated by small molecules as has been shown for ToxT, an AraC family member from V. cholerae. In ETEC the expression of many types of adhesive pili is dependent upon the AraC family member Rns. We present here the 3 Å crystal structure of Rns and show it closely resembles ToxT. Rns crystallized as a dimer via an interface similar to that observed in other dimeric AraC’s. Furthermore, the structure of Rns revealed the presence of a ligand, decanoic acid, that inhibits its activity in a manner similar to the fatty acid mediated inhibition observed for ToxT and the S. enterica homologue HilD. Together, these results support our hypothesis that fatty acids regulate virulence controlling AraC family members in a common manner across a number of enteric pathogens. Furthermore, for the first time this work identifies a small molecule capable of inhibiting the ETEC Rns regulon, providing a basis for development of therapeutics against this deadly human pathogen

Loss of Catalytically Inactive Lipid Phosphatase Myotubularin-related Protein 12 Impairs Myotubularin Stability and Promotes Centronuclear Myopathy in Zebrafish

X-linked myotubular myopathy (XLMTM) is a congenital disorder caused by mutations of the myotubularin gene, MTM1. Myotubularin belongs to a large family of conserved lipid phosphatases that include both catalytically active and inactive myotubularin-related proteins (i.e., “MTMRs”). Biochemically, catalytically inactive MTMRs have been shown to form heteroligomers with active members within the myotubularin family through protein-protein interactions. However, the pathophysiological significance of catalytically inactive MTMRs remains unknown in muscle. By in vitro as well as in vivo studies, we have identified that catalytically inactive myotubularin-related protein 12 (MTMR12) binds to myotubularin in skeletal muscle. Knockdown of the mtmr12 gene in zebrafish resulted in skeletal muscle defects and impaired motor function. Analysis of mtmr12 morphant fish showed pathological changes with central nucleation, disorganized Triads, myofiber hypotrophy and whorled membrane structures similar to those seen in X-linked myotubular myopathy. Biochemical studies showed that deficiency of MTMR12 results in reduced levels of myotubularin protein in zebrafish and mammalian C2C12 cells. Loss of myotubularin also resulted in reduction of MTMR12 protein in C2C12 cells, mice and humans. Moreover, XLMTM mutations within the myotubularin interaction domain disrupted binding to MTMR12 in cell culture. Analysis of human XLMTM patient myotubes showed that mutations that disrupt the interaction between myotubularin and MTMR12 proteins result in reduction of both myotubularin and MTMR12. These studies strongly support the concept that interactions between myotubularin and MTMR12 are required for the stability of their functional protein complex in normal skeletal muscles. This work highlights an important physiological function of catalytically inactive phosphatases in the pathophysiology of myotubular myopathy and suggests a novel therapeutic approach through identification of drugs that could stabilize the myotubularin-MTMR12 complex and hence ameliorate this disorder

Personalized rTMS for Depression: A Review

Personalized treatments are gaining momentum across all fields of medicine. Precision medicine can be applied to neuromodulatory techniques, where focused brain stimulation treatments such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) are used to modulate brain circuits and alleviate clinical symptoms. rTMS is well-tolerated and clinically effective for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) and other neuropsychiatric disorders. However, despite its wide stimulation parameter space (location, angle, pattern, frequency, and intensity can be adjusted), rTMS is currently applied in a one-size-fits-all manner, potentially contributing to its suboptimal clinical response (~50%). In this review, we examine components of rTMS that can be optimized to account for inter-individual variability in neural function and anatomy. We discuss current treatment options for TRD, the neural mechanisms thought to underlie treatment, differences in FDA-cleared devices, targeting strategies, stimulation parameter selection, and adaptive closed-loop rTMS to improve treatment outcomes. We suggest that better understanding of the wide and modifiable parameter space of rTMS will greatly improve clinical outcome

Discovery of <i>Aspergillus frankstonensis</i> sp nov during environmental sampling for animal and human fungal pathogens

Invasive fungal infections (IFI) due to species in Aspergillus section Fumigati (ASF), including the Aspergillus viridinutans species complex (AVSC), are increasingly reported in humans and cats. The risk of exposure to these medically important fungi in Australia is unknown. Air and soil was sampled from the domiciles of pet cats diagnosed with these IFI and from a nature reserve in Frankston, Victoria, where Aspergillus viridinutans sensu stricto was discovered in 1954. Of 104 ASF species isolated, 61% were A. fumigatus sensu stricto, 9% were AVSC (A. felis-clade and A. frankstonensis sp. nov.) and 30% were other species (30%). Seven pathogenic ASF species known to cause disease in humans and animals (A. felis-clade, A. fischeri, A. thermomutatus, A. lentulus, A. laciniosus A. fumisynnematus, A. hiratsukae) comprised 25% of isolates overall. AVSC species were only isolated from Frankston soil where they were abundant, suggesting a particular ecological niche. Phylogenetic, morphological and metabolomic analyses of these isolates identified a new species, A. frankstonensis that is phylogenetically distinct from other AVSC species, heterothallic and produces a unique array of extrolites, including the UV spectrum characterized compounds DOLD, RAIMO and CALBO. Shared morphological and physiological characteristics with other AVSC species include slow sporulation, optimal growth at 37°C, no growth at 50°C, and viriditoxin production. Overall, the risk of environmental exposure to pathogenic species in ASF in Australia appears to be high, but there was no evidence of direct environmental exposure to AVSC species in areas where humans and cats cohabitate