Modeling of the Connection Between the Ecological Farming and Farm Sizes under Hungarian Conditions

Nowadays, the spread of ecological farming occurs in an ever-accelerating rate in Europe. In the beginning of the 1990s, this process started in Hungary too. Primarily, horticultural bioproduct have appeared on the market; however, farms, which can be regarded as a sample, formed out relatively fast, and made products qualified as plough-land bulk goods, first of all for export, but a stratum in Hungary also starts to interest for these products. In our research, we looked for an answer to the question, how the economic condition system of ecological production forms out in Hungarian circumstances, on which farm sizes farming can be made profitably. We started by adapting the earlier model researches that current farm sizes in Hungary, are too small yet, so that one could make profitable production, at the same time, farmers, who affiliate in time, may reach extra sales revenues in comparison to the traditional (factory-) farming, by producing bio-products, which, however, can ensure the capacity of living of such farms, which were in unliveable under the earlier circumstances. Simultaneously with the spread of ecological farming, this advantage will decrease, therefore the time factor has an important role, at the same time, the capacity expansion not confirmed with consumers' demands, takes this income advantage away. Under Hungarian circumstances, according to the present conditions 1) depending on the extent of the bio extra price 2) the income level covering the costs, reduces the profitable farm size from about 100 ha to 20-60 ha. This gives hope for farmers, whose farm size is considerably smaller (under 10 ha) that the farm size, on which profitably production can be made, is in a relatively reachable distance. To realize this, the state should definitely urge the farms on this, by the available direct and indirect tools.Farm Management,

Some ideas of economic aspects of precision plant production (protection)

Precision farming – besides other aspects – enables the reduction of use of chemical substances in crop production while decreases farming risks, contributes to specific field-crop-plant applications, makes production processes more designable and increases profitability. The introduction of a new technology requires complex farm-management decisions, including the consideration of economic correlations (costs-yield-income). Considering the three basic meanings of sustainability, the farming strategies have to meet these requirements. There are several alternatives to reduce artificial chemical use (applying new chemicals with lower doses, chemical-free ways like organic farming, negative environmental taxes, precision farming, etc.). In Hungary the farm structure is polarized, there are large crop producing farms (operating over 1000 ha), a lot of small farms (working less then 50 ha), but the number of middle sized farms is growing up, fortunately. Precision plant production could be a real alternative for them in their efforts to optimize chemical use, but the capital investment required for shifting to this technology, should also be considered. It is necessary to examine the conditions under which it will be a viable decision from economic point of view. It can be stated that the extra investment will be returned above 150-160 ha crop producing farm. Risk of return depends on soil conditions, weed coverage and could be decreased by increasing the utilization of machinery. The objective of the study is to examine the economic consequences of precision plant protection, to find the answers to the questions which may occur when the farmer turns to precision farming.changes in profitability, viable size, Crop Production/Industries,

Precíziós növénytermelés növényvédÅ‘szer-használatának gazdasági hatásai

A mezÅ‘gazdaság műszaki fejlesztése lehetÅ‘séget nyújt a korszerű technológiák széles körű alkalmazására. Ilyen a precíziós növényvédelem, amely egyben a fenntarthatóság kritériumai érvényesítését is szolgálja. Gyakorlati alkalmazása érdemi vegyszer megtakarítást eredményez. Modellszámítás segítségével vizsgáltam a lehetséges megtakarítás közgazdasági összefüggéseit makrogazdasági szinten. A precíziós növénytermelésre történÅ‘ átállás utáni kemikália-felhasználásban az EU-25-ökben – optimista szcenáriót feltételezve – változatlan hozamszint 340 ezer tonnával kevesebb műtrágya hatóanyaggal, míg növényvédÅ‘ szerbÅ‘l – jelenlegi dózisszinten – 30 ezer tonnával kevesebb kijuttatásával érhetÅ‘ el. Amennyiben az átálló gazdaságok aránya 30–60% között alakul, a teljes felületkezeléses intenzív technológiában felhasznált mennyiséghez képest az üzemenkénti átlagos megtakarítás 30–60% közöttire becsülhetÅ‘ növényvédÅ‘ szerek hatóanyagaiból. Ha a 10–35%-os hatóanyag-csökkentés változatlan hozam mellett valósul meg, nemzetgazdasági szinten 10–35%-kal csökken a környezet terhelése. Ebben az esetben az egyéni és a társadalmi hasznosság egybeesik, ami a fenntarthatóságot szolgálja. A mezÅ‘gazdaságban üzemi szinten minden olyan technológiai eljárás széles körű elterjedése, amely pozitív hatást gyakorol a természeti erÅ‘források megÅ‘rzésére, „újratermelésére†és üzemi szinten jövedelmezÅ‘en a technológiához szükséges fejlesztések megtérülésével (gazdasági hatékonyság) valósítható meg, a fenntarthatóság irányába hat. E mellett a precíziós növénytermelés elterjedése elÅ‘mozdítja a társadalmi fenntarthatóságot is a környezetterhelés csökkentésével és az élelmiszerek, valamint ipari nyersanyagok, illetve energetikai célú alapanyagok előállításával. ----------------------------------------------- Advances in agricultural technology offer a wide range of modern technologies. One of these is precision pesticide use, which also serves to meet the requirements of sustainability. When used in practice, it results in appreciable savings of chemicals. I used model calculations to look at the economic aspects of potential savings at a macro-economical level. By switching to precision farming – in an optimistic scenario –, the same yield can be achieved by 340,000 tons less fertilizer and 30,000 tons less pesticide (at the current dosing level) in the EU-25. Assuming that 30 to 60% of farms switch to precision farming, the average savings on pesticide agents per farm in full-surface intensive technology can be estimated to reach 30-60%. If 10-35% less active ingredient is used while yields remain unchanged, environmental emissions in the national economy will also be reduced by 10 to 35%. In this case, personal benefits coincide with social benefits, which is a step towards sustainability. The spreading of any technology procedure in agriculture which has a positive impact on the preservation and regeneration of natural resources and can be implemented profitably at the farm level (economic feasibility) promotes sustainability. Additionally, the adoption of precision farming methods will also facilitate social sustainability by reducing pollution and by producing food, industrial base materials and fuels.növényvédÅ‘szer-környezetterhelés, megtakarítás, versenyképesség, fenntarthatóság, pesticide emission, savings, competitiveness, sustainability, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, Production Economics,

Land use and land reform in former Central and East European countries

The importance of agriculture is decreasing all over the world. The aim of the paper is to compare the ownership structure and land use in some selected former Central and Eastern European countries. The property structure and land use is in dichotomy, the production is performed simultaneously on small-size farms which produce primarily for self-consumption. The importance of farm land leases is increasing. The present paper tries to identify the main differences and similarities in land ownership and property structure, the changes in the last fifteen years, what happened and whether the expectations had been met. Furthermore the paper compares the main regulations of land ownership and tenancy in different countries, explains land market protection, and the need of a real valuation system of land.property structure, land prices, land use, land use and ownership, Land Economics/Use,

Economic Modeling of Hungarian Farms Incorporating Nature Conservation

Hungary's imminent entrance into the EU calls for a farm-level financial support system aiming at combining agricultural production with nature conservation targets. Within the Hungarian National Agri-environmental Programme (NAEP) for the Environmentally Sensitive Areas, a payment system was developed. For each individual region the amount of support for every environmentally friendly farming prescription package (tier) was established using the support calculation methodology of the EU. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the impact of the packages on the income of an individual mixed farm. In contrast to many other studies, in the current study the analysis was carried out with the context of the whole farm, taking into consideration the entire production structure. The amount of support which the farmer needs to sign up for a contract turned out to be quite different from the actual payments done by the Hungarian government.Farm Management, Land Economics/Use,

Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Chronic Kidney Disease in Primary and Secondary Cardiovascular Prevention Groups

Background: Canagliflozin reduces the risk of kidney failure in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease, but effects on specific cardiovascular outcomes are uncertain, as are effects in people without previous cardiovascular disease (primary prevention). Methods: In CREDENCE (Canagliflozin and Renal Events in Diabetes With Established Nephropathy Clinical Evaluation), 4401 participants with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease were randomly assigned to canagliflozin or placebo on a background of optimized standard of care. Results: Primary prevention participants (n=2181, 49.6%) were younger (61 versus 65 years), were more often female (37% versus 31%), and had shorter duration of diabetes mellitus (15 years versus 16 years) compared with secondary prevention participants (n=2220, 50.4%). Canagliflozin reduced the risk of major cardiovascular events overall (hazard ratio [HR], 0.80 [95% CI, 0.67-0.95]; P=0.01), with consistent reductions in both the primary (HR, 0.68 [95% CI, 0.49-0.94]) and secondary (HR, 0.85 [95% CI, 0.69-1.06]) prevention groups (P for interaction=0.25). Effects were also similar for the components of the composite including cardiovascular death (HR, 0.78 [95% CI, 0.61-1.00]), nonfatal myocardial infarction (HR, 0.81 [95% CI, 0.59-1.10]), and nonfatal stroke (HR, 0.80 [95% CI, 0.56-1.15]). The risk of the primary composite renal outcome and the composite of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for heart failure were also consistently reduced in both the primary and secondary prevention groups (P for interaction >0.5 for each outcome). Conclusions: Canagliflozin significantly reduced major cardiovascular events and kidney failure in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease, including in participants who did not have previous cardiovascular disease

Canagliflozin and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy

BACKGROUND Type 2 diabetes mellitus is the leading cause of kidney failure worldwide, but few effective long-term treatments are available. In cardiovascular trials of inhibitors of sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2), exploratory results have suggested that such drugs may improve renal outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS In this double-blind, randomized trial, we assigned patients with type 2 diabetes and albuminuric chronic kidney disease to receive canagliflozin, an oral SGLT2 inhibitor, at a dose of 100 mg daily or placebo. All the patients had an estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 30 to <90 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 of body-surface area and albuminuria (ratio of albumin [mg] to creatinine [g], >300 to 5000) and were treated with renin–angiotensin system blockade. The primary outcome was a composite of end-stage kidney disease (dialysis, transplantation, or a sustained estimated GFR of <15 ml per minute per 1.73 m2), a doubling of the serum creatinine level, or death from renal or cardiovascular causes. Prespecified secondary outcomes were tested hierarchically. RESULTS The trial was stopped early after a planned interim analysis on the recommendation of the data and safety monitoring committee. At that time, 4401 patients had undergone randomization, with a median follow-up of 2.62 years. The relative risk of the primary outcome was 30% lower in the canagliflozin group than in the placebo group, with event rates of 43.2 and 61.2 per 1000 patient-years, respectively (hazard ratio, 0.70; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.59 to 0.82; P=0.00001). The relative risk of the renal-specific composite of end-stage kidney disease, a doubling of the creatinine level, or death from renal causes was lower by 34% (hazard ratio, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.53 to 0.81; P<0.001), and the relative risk of end-stage kidney disease was lower by 32% (hazard ratio, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.54 to 0.86; P=0.002). The canagliflozin group also had a lower risk of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or stroke (hazard ratio, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.67 to 0.95; P=0.01) and hospitalization for heart failure (hazard ratio, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.47 to 0.80; P<0.001). There were no significant differences in rates of amputation or fracture. CONCLUSIONS In patients with type 2 diabetes and kidney disease, the risk of kidney failure and cardiovascular events was lower in the canagliflozin group than in the placebo group at a median follow-up of 2.62 years

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF AN AGRICULTURAL INNOVATION – PRECISION CROP PRODUCTION

Innovation in agriculture ensures the wide-spread use of the latest, up-to-date technology. Such new technology is precision farming in crop production, which serves as a validation of the criteria of environmental and economic sustainability. The economic applicability of precision crop production depends on several factors.Among them the following aspects must be emphasized: the size of the farm, the characteristics of the production structure, the current input-output prices and their tendencies, the investment needed for transitioning to precision technology and its capital source, the level of professional knowledge and the managerial attitudes of the farm. I have examined the economic relations between potential savings in chemicals on EU level. It has been found that after switching to precision farming, the active ingredient use for fertilizers can be reduced by 340 thousand tons at the same expected yield level in an optimistic scenario in the EU-27, while the savings in pesticide use can be 30 thousand tons (calculating with the current dose-level). If approximately 30% of the crop producing and mixed farms over 16 ESU adopt this new technology, this will diminish environmental loads by up to 10-35%. The majority of farms characterized by greater output and size can be based on their own equipment but it might as well be presumed that smaller farms can turn to precision farming not based on their own investment. They can buy the technical service from providers, they can establish producer cooperation, for example in the frame of machinery rings. At a certain farm size and farming intensity precision crop production is a real, environmentally friendly farming strategy, with the help of which the farm can reach earnings that cover at least the economic conditions of simple reproduction

Some ideas of economic aspects of precision plant production (protection)

Precision farming – besides other aspects – enables the reduction of use of chemical substances in crop production while decreases farming risks, contributes to specific field-crop-plant applications, makes production processes more designable and increases profitability. The introduction of a new technology requires complex farm-management decisions, including the consideration of economic correlations (costs-yield-income). Considering the three basic meanings of sustainability, the farming strategies have to meet these requirements. There are several alternatives to reduce artificial chemical use (applying new chemicals with lower doses, chemical-free ways like organic farming, negative environmental taxes, precision farming, etc.). In Hungary the farm structure is polarized, there are large crop producing farms (operating over 1000 ha), a lot of small farms (working less then 50 ha), but the number of middle sized farms is growing up, fortunately. Precision plant production could be a real alternative for them in their efforts to optimize chemical use, but the capital investment required for shifting to this technology, should also be considered. It is necessary to examine the conditions under which it will be a viable decision from economic point of view. It can be stated that the extra investment will be returned above 150-160 ha crop producing farm. Risk of return depends on soil conditions, weed coverage and could be decreased by increasing the utilization of machinery. The objective of the study is to examine the economic consequences of precision plant protection, to find the answers to the questions which may occur when the farmer turns to precision farming

Changes in cereal land use and production level in the European Union during the period 1999-2009, focusing on New Member States

The decrease in the area of arable land has further continued in the European Union (EU) since the Millennium. Sustainable development is partially based on the sustainable use of natural resources, which is based on the limitation of land use and on the introduction of different incentives. Previous direct subsidies resulted in increased production. The reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has aimed to stop the increase in production, possibly even to decrease production. The objective of this research is to show whether such an effect on land use and on the change of production structure in the EU can be observed. Analyses have shown that agricultural and arable areas have further decreased within land use since the Millennium, continuing the previously characteristic trend in the EU. The proportion and the yield of cereals in the production structure have increased. We conclude that in this respect the effects of the CAP on agriculture are the opposite to its original aims