Climate Adaptive Agricultural Innovation in Nepal: Prospects and Challenges

It is evident that agriculture of Nepal is the most sensitive sector to climate change, and adaptations are essential for protecting the livelihood of rural poor farmers and ensuring their food security. Farmers are adopting different practices with climate awareness and sometime with spontaneity. In this chapter, we examined whether these climate change adaptation responses are adaptive and innovative and take into consideration existing and projected climate change and variability. Based on the review of adaptation theories and innovation approaches, researchers primarily draw a climate-adaptive agricultural innovation framework. We looked at empirically captured adaptation practices and analyzed their climate adaptive nature based on productivity, resilience, and equity. This study blends both qualitative and quantitative methods—combining case study of rice-wheat system with quantitative survey from four different regions of Terai, Nepal. The study shows that while agricultural system demonstrates a number of practices that contribute to adaptation, there are fundamental institutional, technological, and policy challenges that restrict the prospect of agricultural innovation required to adapt to changing climate

The response of ecosystems to an increasingly variable climate

A wide range of ecological communities ranging from polar terrestrial to tropical marine environments are affectedby global climate change. Over the last century, atmospheric temperature has increased by an average of 0. 60 C andis expected to rise by 1.1- 6.40C over the next 100 years. This rising temperature has increased the intensity andfrequency of weather extremes due to which a large number of species are facing risk of extinction. Studies haveshown that species existing on lower latitude are more sensitive to temperature variability compared to speciesexisting on higher latitude but temperature is increasing rapidly in higher latitude compare to lower latitude. Thisuneven distribution of temperature sensitive species and warming rate has highlighted the need for combined studiesof temperature variability and sensitiveness of species to predict how the ecosystems will respond to increasinglyvariable climate. Using a generalized Rosenzweig-MacArthur model, I explored how temperature variability andsensitivity of species will affect the extinction risks of species and how the connectance and species-richness ofecological communities will govern this response. This study showed that the risk of extinction of species mostlydepends on their sensitivity to temperature deviation from the optimum value and level of temperature variability.Among these two, sensitivity of species to temperature deviation was most prominent factor affecting extinction risk.In this study, connectance did not show any effect on mean extinction risk and time taken by a certain proportion ofspecies to reach pre-defined extinction thresholds. But, species-richness showed some effect on mean extinction riskof species. It was found that risk of extinction of species in species-rich communities was higher compared tospecies-poor communities. Species-rich communities also took shorter time before they lost 1/6 of the species. Thepresent study also suggests a possible tipping point due to increasing temperature variability in near future. In furtherstudies, different sensitivity of species at different trophic levels and the possible evolution of sensitivity of speciesshould also be consider while predicting how ecological communities will respond to changing climate in the longrun

The response of ecosystems to an increasingly variable climate

A wide range of ecological communities ranging from polar terrestrial to tropical marine environments are affectedby global climate change. Over the last century, atmospheric temperature has increased by an average of 0. 60 C andis expected to rise by 1.1- 6.40C over the next 100 years. This rising temperature has increased the intensity andfrequency of weather extremes due to which a large number of species are facing risk of extinction. Studies haveshown that species existing on lower latitude are more sensitive to temperature variability compared to speciesexisting on higher latitude but temperature is increasing rapidly in higher latitude compare to lower latitude. Thisuneven distribution of temperature sensitive species and warming rate has highlighted the need for combined studiesof temperature variability and sensitiveness of species to predict how the ecosystems will respond to increasinglyvariable climate. Using a generalized Rosenzweig-MacArthur model, I explored how temperature variability andsensitivity of species will affect the extinction risks of species and how the connectance and species-richness ofecological communities will govern this response. This study showed that the risk of extinction of species mostlydepends on their sensitivity to temperature deviation from the optimum value and level of temperature variability.Among these two, sensitivity of species to temperature deviation was most prominent factor affecting extinction risk.In this study, connectance did not show any effect on mean extinction risk and time taken by a certain proportion ofspecies to reach pre-defined extinction thresholds. But, species-richness showed some effect on mean extinction riskof species. It was found that risk of extinction of species in species-rich communities was higher compared tospecies-poor communities. Species-rich communities also took shorter time before they lost 1/6 of the species. Thepresent study also suggests a possible tipping point due to increasing temperature variability in near future. In furtherstudies, different sensitivity of species at different trophic levels and the possible evolution of sensitivity of speciesshould also be consider while predicting how ecological communities will respond to changing climate in the longrun

Reutilising abandoned cropland in the Hill agroecological region of Nepal: Options and farmers' preferences

Despite the looming scarcity of agricultural land and rapidly growing demand for food and biofuel globally, more agricultural lands are being abandoned from farming than are being converted to agriculture. Therefore, there is increasing interest in reutilising abandoned croplands to mitigate the undesirable impacts of abandonment and address global challenges such as food insecurity, arable land scarcity and agrobiodiversity loss. Although a number of studies have examined the extent, drivers and impacts of abandonment at various temporal and spatial scales, few studies have investigated the dynamics and potential pathways for reutilising abandoned cropland. This study addressed this knowledge gap by analysing potential reutilisation options of abandoned croplands, considering the influence of socio-economic factors on farmer preferences for reutilisation options, and assessing the conditions that would create an enabling environment for productive reutilisation. Using a mixed methods approach, quantitative data was collected through a survey of 374 households and qualitative data from six focus group discussions in three districts of the Hill agroecological region of Nepal. The majority of farmers, regardless of abandoned cropland holdings, considered that abandoned croplands should be reutilised. The farmers identified seven options (Cash cropping, Fruit crop farming, Spice and medicinal crop farming, Fodder tree plantation, Cereal cropping, Woodlot plantation and Mixed subsistence farming) for reutilising of abandoned croplands. Farmers' preference was comparatively higher for high value and cash-generating options for the reutilisation. Despite the dominance of traditional mixed subsistence farming in the area, the majority of farmers did not consider this system as a viable option for reutilisation. Structural and institutional factors, as well as labour constraints, were found important to create an enabling environment that motivates farmers for the reutilisation. Farmers' greater preference for cash-generating options implies that the promotion of market-oriented farming on abandoned croplands could help to minimise abandonment and revitalise the Nepalese agricultural sector. The findings are relevant to other regions of the globe that have experienced cropland abandonment

Drivers and consequences of agricultural land abandonment and its reutilisation pathways: A systematic review

Agricultural land abandonment is a complex, multidimensional and non-linear global phenomenon driven by multiple factors and with contrasting impacts on agrobiodiversity, environment and society. A comprehensive overview of agricultural land abandonment provides an understanding of how the issue is emerging globally, the impacts it has caused and pathways that could halt the negative impacts. This study reviews the drivers and consequences of agricultural land abandonment and pathways for the reutilisation of abandoned agricultural lands. The 124 relevant articles used in this review were retrieved systematically from CAB Abstracts, Scopus and Web of Science, applying exclusion and inclusion criteria in line with standard protocols. The spatial and temporal diversity of the selected articles indicates that the majority of studies were 
 conducted in European (64 articles) and Asian countries (44 articles). Although farmland abandonment has received research attention from the early 1990s, about 95% of the articles were published only in the last 15 years. In the case of Asian countries, almost all of the studies took place after 2014. Broadly, seven categories of drivers (demographic, household characteristics, farm characteristics, biophysical, economic, regulatory and socio-political) were responsible for agricultural land abandonment. This study found that land abandonment has both positive and negative consequences on several abiotic and biotic components of the landscape. However, negative consequences were most frequently reported compared to positive consequences, especially for agrobiodiversity and rural household livelihoods and communities. Positive impacts included enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem services. Few studies have discussed possible 
 pathways for reutilisation of abandoned farmland. Productive reutilisation options included various farm-forest and afforestation systems, communal land management and high-value crop production. Research gaps included a framework for defining and measuring abandonment; multidisciplinary analyses of drivers and consequences; intrinsic (behavioural, cultural and geopolitical) factors affecting abandonment; and building capacity for alternative local land use options. This review provides a valuable starting point for rural development stakeholders to identify where future research is required and provides knowledge about the trade-offs and opportunities associated with land abandonment

Agricultural Land Abandonment in the Hill Agroecological Region of Nepal: Drivers, Farmer Perceptions and Reutilisation Pathways

Amid concerns of the looming scarcity of agricultural land and rapidly growing global demand for food and biofuel, cropland abandonment is occurring in many parts of the globe, affecting millions of hectares of cultivated land. Although cropland abandonment trends have been widely reported and studied in European landscapes and other Western countries, this land use change phenomenon is relatively new in developing countries, including Nepal, and knowledge about the drivers and impacts of cropland abandonment is lacking. There is a need for a deeper understanding of why Nepalese farmers are abandoning farming, what are the impacts of cropland abandonment on rural households, and how abandoned croplands can be reutilised for the benefit of the rural community and the environment. Drawing lessons from global evidence, this PhD work aimed to understand the underlying drivers and implications of agricultural land abandonment, and to explore potential reutilisation pathways to improve the rural economy, food security and sustainable land use in Nepal. To achieve this goal, four research objectives were formulated and investigated using a systematic literature review and quantitative and qualitative data collection from three districts of the hill agroecological region of Nepal, using a mixed methods research approach. Three districts – Kavre, Lamjung and Kaski – were selected considering the diversity of demographic and socioeconomic status of farmers, land use and farming practices, economic opportunities and livelihood systems, and land abandonment trend and prospect for reutilisation. Quantitative data was collected through a household survey and qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. In total 374 household surveys, 6 focus group discussions, and 15 key informant interviews were conducted. The first objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review to understand the drivers and consequences of agricultural land abandonment and pathways for the reutilisation of abandoned agricultural lands reported across the globe (Chapter 2). For the review, 124 relevant articles were retrieved from a systematic search of CAB Abstracts, Scopus and Web of Science, applying exclusion and inclusion criteria in line with standard protocols. The spatial and temporal diversity of the reviewed articles showed that most of the research on the topic of land abandonment is concentrated in European (64 articles) and Asian Countries (44 articles). Although this land use change has received research attention from the early 1990s, about 95% of the articles were published only in the last 15 years. In the case of Asian countries, almost all of the studies took place after 2014. The review identified seven categories of drivers responsible for cropland abandonment: demographic, household characteristics, farm characteristics, biophysical, economic, regulatory and socio-political. Cropland abandonment had mixed impacts on several abiotic and biotic components of the landscape, with contrasting views about the social and environmental implications. However, negative consequences were most frequently reported compared to positive consequences, particularly in the agricultural landscape, farmland and farm structures, food security, socio-cultural aspects and economic aspects. Positive impacts were observed on carbon sequestration, habitat availability and microbial abundance. Although previous studies often considered land abandonment as a global concern in land use assessment and management, few studies discussed the possible reutilisation pathways of abandoned croplands. Alternative land uses included various farm-forest and afforestation systems, highvalue crop farming and a range of communal land management approaches. Finally, this review chapter provided valuable insights for future research and knowledge about the trade-offs and opportunities associated with land abandonment. The second objective of the study was to examine the extent, drivers and impacts of cropland abandonment in the hill agroecological region of Nepal (Chapter 3). The study revealed that, depending on the location, between 31% and 48% of croplands were abandoned in the region, with 60% of farming households having abandoned at least one parcel of cropland. Biophysical drivers (distance from homestead to parcel, the slope of the parcel, land fragmentation, land quality and irrigation availability) and socio-demographic drivers (family size, higher education of the household members and out-migration) were commonly responsible for agricultural land abandonment. Negative impacts of land abandonment were reported for rural landscapes, human-made farm structures, socio-economic systems, local food production and food security. In line with global studies, this research suggested that marginal land quality, demographic changes (particularly migration) and rising alternative economic opportunities elsewhere contributed to cropland abandonment. The third objective of this study was to investigate the dynamics and potential pathways for reutilising abandoned cropland. To address this objective, Chapter 4 examined the potential reutilisation options, farmer preferences, and conditions that create an enabling environment for productive reutilisation of abandoned croplands. Regardless of their abandoned cropland holdings, the majority of the Nepalese hill farmers considered that abandoned croplands should be reutilised. The farmers identified seven options for reutilising abandoned croplands: Cash cropping, Fruit crop farming, Spice and medicinal crop farming, Fodder tree plantation, Cereal cropping, Woodlot plantation and Mixed subsistence farming. Despite the dominance of traditional mixed subsistence farming in the area, the majority of farmers did not consider this system as a viable option for reutilisation. Farmers preferred high value and cash-generating options for reutilisation. This implied that the use of relatively productive croplands for marketoriented farming could help to minimise abandonment and revitalise the Nepalese agricultural sector. The study showed that farmers' preferences and adoption of reutilisation options are influenced by their socio-economic attributes, household needs and availability of resources. Chapter 4 also showed that the most important conditions that motivate farmers, apart from labour availability, were structural and institutional conditions that require state or commercial intervention to address. However, many aspects of these latter factors are beyond the control of farming households in the region. This highlighted the need for an in-depth understanding of how policies regulate structural, commercial and institutional settings, thereby shaping the reutilisation decisions of farmers at the local level. Chapter 5 addressed this need by analysing the policy constraints for reutilisation of abandoned farmlands and identifying possible policy solutions for the management of abandoned farmlands for productive use. Chapter 5 found that policy provisions related to land rights, labour, incentives and governance play important roles in shaping decisions on reutilisation of abandoned cropland. Land-related issues rooted in ownership, tenancy rights, access, inheritance law and rising trends of land conversation to non-farm use, have played important roles in shaping the abandonment and reutilisation process. Migration-promoting policies, and agricultural policies that fail to support farming systems innovation or agricultural market development have further limited reutilisation. Similarly, the lack of effective implementation of programs to manage croplands sustainably, weak coordination within and between institutions, and conventional land governance systems are other constraints for reutilisation. Based on these findings, five potential policy solutions to address these problems have been recommended: (a) provision of land use rights transfer to improve access to land, (b) promoting the consolidation of fragmented land parcels to help ensure economies of scale, (c) improved farm labour management and promotion of farm mechanisation to address labour shortage issues (d) commercially oriented policy priorities to reutilise relatively productive abandoned croplands for high-value, comparative advantage and export potential commodities, and (e) improved administrative and governance capacity of local governments to monitor and manage unauthorised land conversion, fragmentation and abandonment. From a global policy perspective, abandoned croplands are often viewed as unproductive land, occupying marginal lands. But there is evidence that a significant portion of globally abandoned croplands is still economically viable for recultivation, a view reinforced in this study. Thus, development activities and policies should consider options for reutilising abandoned croplands sustainably to address the growing global socio-economic and environmental challenges associated with land abandonment. Against this backdrop, it is anticipated that the findings of this study will contribute to ongoing national and international discussions about practices, policies and trade-offs of cropland abandonment and its reutilisation pathways

Agricultural Land Abandonment in the Hill Agro-ecological Region of Nepal: Analysis of Extent, Drivers and Impact of Change

Despite widely reported trends of agricultural land abandonment across many parts of the globe, this land use change phenomenon is relatively new in the context of Nepal. In recent years, rural farming communities in the hill region are gradually reducing the intensity of farming, leading to underutilisation and abandonment of agricultural lands. Adopting a mixed methods research approach, this study investigated the extent of agricultural land abandonment, its underlying causal drivers and perceived impacts in the hill agro-ecological region of Nepal. A structured survey of 374 households and six focus group discussions were carried out in three districts. The study revealed that around 40% of agricultural lands in the hill agro-ecological region have been abandoned and 60% of farmers have left at least one parcel of agricultural land abandoned. It was found that biophysical drivers (distance from homestead to parcel, slope of the parcel, land fragmentation, land quality and irrigation availability) and socio-demographic drivers (family size, higher education of the household members, domestic migration and out-migration) were responsible for agricultural land abandonment. Negative impacts of land abandonment were observed on the rural landscape, human-made farm structures, socio-economic systems, local food production and food security. In line with global studies, this research suggest that marginal land quality, demographic changes and rising alternative economic opportunities elsewhere contribute to farmland abandonment. This study also discusses land management approaches and policy implications to address the issue of agricultural land abandonment