PERFORMANCE MEASURES: BANDWIDTH VERSUS FIDELITY IN PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

Performance is of focal and critical interest in organizations. Despite its criticality, when it comes to human performance there are many questions as to how to best measure and manage performance. One such issue is the breadth of the performance that should be considered. In this paper, we examine the issue of the breadth of performance in terms of measuring and managing performance. Overall, a contingency approach is taken in which the expected benefits and preference for broad or narrow performance measures depend on the type of job (fixed or changeable).bandwidth, fidelity in performance management, performance measures

Exploring the Cognitive Nature of Boards of Directors and Its Implication for Board Effectiveness

In this paper we propose a theoretical framework that emphasizes the development of a shared mental model (SMM) of a board of directors and its impact on board effectiveness and suggest that the accuracy and scope of the SMM in a board will moderate the relationship between a board’s SMM and board effectiveness. Also, we examine the impact of task and relationship conflict on the development of a SMM. Finally, we examine three board attributes (board size, CEO duality, and the proportion of outside directors on a board) as antecedents to the development of conflict among board members.Boards of directors, corporate governance, shared mental models

Impact of primary kidney disease on the effects of empagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease: secondary analyses of the EMPA-KIDNEY trial

Background: The EMPA KIDNEY trial showed that empagliflozin reduced the risk of the primary composite outcome of kidney disease progression or cardiovascular death in patients with chronic kidney disease mainly through slowing progression. We aimed to assess how effects of empagliflozin might differ by primary kidney disease across its broad population. Methods: EMPA-KIDNEY, a randomised, controlled, phase 3 trial, was conducted at 241 centres in eight countries (Canada, China, Germany, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, the UK, and the USA). Patients were eligible if their estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was 20 to less than 45 mL/min per 1·73 m2, or 45 to less than 90 mL/min per 1·73 m2 with a urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (uACR) of 200 mg/g or higher at screening. They were randomly assigned (1:1) to 10 mg oral empagliflozin once daily or matching placebo. Effects on kidney disease progression (defined as a sustained ≥40% eGFR decline from randomisation, end-stage kidney disease, a sustained eGFR below 10 mL/min per 1·73 m2, or death from kidney failure) were assessed using prespecified Cox models, and eGFR slope analyses used shared parameter models. Subgroup comparisons were performed by including relevant interaction terms in models. EMPA-KIDNEY is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03594110. Findings: Between May 15, 2019, and April 16, 2021, 6609 participants were randomly assigned and followed up for a median of 2·0 years (IQR 1·5–2·4). Prespecified subgroupings by primary kidney disease included 2057 (31·1%) participants with diabetic kidney disease, 1669 (25·3%) with glomerular disease, 1445 (21·9%) with hypertensive or renovascular disease, and 1438 (21·8%) with other or unknown causes. Kidney disease progression occurred in 384 (11·6%) of 3304 patients in the empagliflozin group and 504 (15·2%) of 3305 patients in the placebo group (hazard ratio 0·71 [95% CI 0·62–0·81]), with no evidence that the relative effect size varied significantly by primary kidney disease (pheterogeneity=0·62). The between-group difference in chronic eGFR slopes (ie, from 2 months to final follow-up) was 1·37 mL/min per 1·73 m2 per year (95% CI 1·16–1·59), representing a 50% (42–58) reduction in the rate of chronic eGFR decline. This relative effect of empagliflozin on chronic eGFR slope was similar in analyses by different primary kidney diseases, including in explorations by type of glomerular disease and diabetes (p values for heterogeneity all >0·1). Interpretation: In a broad range of patients with chronic kidney disease at risk of progression, including a wide range of non-diabetic causes of chronic kidney disease, empagliflozin reduced risk of kidney disease progression. Relative effect sizes were broadly similar irrespective of the cause of primary kidney disease, suggesting that SGLT2 inhibitors should be part of a standard of care to minimise risk of kidney failure in chronic kidney disease. Funding: Boehringer Ingelheim, Eli Lilly, and UK Medical Research Council

An Examination of Psychological Contract Violation and Its Effect on Work Outcomes

Researchers have described psychological contracts as an employee\u27s beliefs regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that employee and the employing organization. A key issue in the perceived agreement between the employee and the organization is that the organization will live up to its promises. Psychological contract breach (PCB) refers to the cognitive perception of unfulfilled promises. Psychological contract violation (PCV) refers to a negative and relatively intense affective reaction that sometimes follows an employee?s perception that he/she has not received all that was promised. This research examines potential moderating variables (equity sensitivity, affective disposition) in the relationship between PCB and PCV as well as potential moderating variables (reciprocation wariness, work ethic) in the relationship between PCV and work outcomes (in-role and extra-role work performance)

Leadership Theories are a Product of Their Time: A Historical Review Of 20th Century Leadership Theories

This paper considers the development of some of the most prominent leadership theories of the 20th century: Trait Theories, Organization Specialists Theories, Scientific Management Theory, Behavior Theories, Contingency Theories, Diversity Theories, and Global Leadership Theories. Emphasis is placed on the impact that national and global events as well as cultural trends have on the development of leadership theories. The contention is that the development and acceptance of theories are time and context dependent

Implications of the Affective Response to Psychological Contract Breach

Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of psychological contract violation (PCV) as a mediating variable in the relationship between psychological contract breach (PCB) and workplace attitudes and behaviors. In addition, this study aims to expand the generalizability of psychological contract theories by examining service-oriented employees rather than a population of managers as in most research on PCB. Design/methodology/approach A survey was conducted on 196 service-oriented employees working in the United States. Factor analyses (principle components, varimax rotation) were conducted on all of the variables in the study to determine the factorial independence of the constructs. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the main effects and mediating hypotheses. Findings PCV was found to fully mediate the relationship between PCB and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, intent to quit, perceived organizational support, service delivery service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors, and participation service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors. PCV partially mediated the relationship between PCB and loyalty service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors. PCV was not found to mediate the relationship between PCB and in-role job performance. Research limitations/implications The use of a cross-sectional design does not allow for definitive conclusions regarding causality and there is a possibility that the results may be influenced by common method variance. Practical implications Managers need to carefully consider the psychological contracts of their subordinates. The perception of PCB may negatively impact a whole host of workplace outcomes, particularly when PCB leads to PCV. Originality/value This paper empirically examines the PCB??PCV??Outcomes model using a sample of service-oriented employees.Psychological Contract Breach, Psychological Contract Violation, Organizational Citizenship Behaviors, Attitudes, Behaviors

Citizenship Under Pressure: What\u27s a Good Soldier To Do?

Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are typically defined as discretionary behaviors that contribute to the effective functioning of organizations. Prior research has generally focused on instances in which employees willingly engage in such behaviors; however, because OCBs are often informally encouraged and rewarded, workers may experience pressure to be good soldiers within their organizations. Using a sample of 245 employees, our findings indicate that citizenship pressure is related to increased levels of OCB, particularly among unmarried and less conscientious employees. However, there appear to be negative consequences associated with citizenship pressure, even when controlling for OCB and other job demands, such as role overload and hours worked. In particular, citizenship pressure is associated with work-family conflict, work-leisure conflict, job stress, and intentions to quit. Implications of this study and some directions for future research are also discussed. Copyright (C) 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

An Examination of Similarity in the Subervisor-Subordinate DYAD as a Predictor of Psychological Contract Breach

This research explores the effect of supervisor and subordinate similarity (in terms of cognitive style and demographics) on the experience of psychological contract breach. Using a sample of 126 African-Americans and Hispanic-Americans working in professional positions, the results of this study indicate that supervisor-subordinate similarity in terms of cognitive style is negatively related to the subordinate?s perception of psychological contract breach. Moreover, the quality of the supervisor-subordinate relationship (measured in terms of leader-member exchange) mediates the relationship between cognitive style similarity and psychological contract breach. However, neither gender nor race differences in the supervisor-subordinate dyad were associated with breaches of the psychological contract. Implications of this research and directions for future research are discussed. Note: Support for this research was provided by a grant awarded to the second author by the Department of Navy, Office of Naval Research (Grant Number: N000144-01-1-0917)